Articles | Volume 10, issue 5
https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-10-975-2022
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-10-975-2022
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
17 Oct 2022
Research article |
| 17 Oct 2022
| 17 Oct 2022
Transitional rock glaciers at sea level in northern Norway
Karianne S. Lilleøren
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Department of Geosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, 0316, Norway
Bernd Etzelmüller
Department of Geosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, 0316, Norway
Line Rouyet
NORCE Norwegian Research Centre AS, Tromsø, 9294, Norway
Trond Eiken
Department of Geosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, 0316, Norway
Gaute Slinde
Department of Geosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, 0316, Norway
Christin Hilbich
Department of Geosciences, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, 1700,
Switzerland
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Thomas J. Barnes, Thomas V. Schuler, Simon Filhol, and Karianne S. Lilleøren
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 801–818, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-801-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-801-2024, 2024
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In this paper, we use machine learning to automatically outline landforms based on their characteristics. We test several methods to identify the most accurate and then proceed to develop the most accurate to improve its accuracy further. We manage to outline landforms with 65 %–75 % accuracy, at a resolution of 10 m, thanks to high-quality/high-resolution elevation data. We find that it is possible to run this method at a country scale to quickly produce landform inventories for future studies.
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Aldo Bertone, Chloé Barboux, Xavier Bodin, Tobias Bolch, Francesco Brardinoni, Rafael Caduff, Hanne H. Christiansen, Margaret M. Darrow, Reynald Delaloye, Bernd Etzelmüller, Ole Humlum, Christophe Lambiel, Karianne S. Lilleøren, Volkmar Mair, Gabriel Pellegrinon, Line Rouyet, Lucas Ruiz, and Tazio Strozzi
The Cryosphere, 16, 2769–2792, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2769-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2769-2022, 2022
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We present the guidelines developed by the IPA Action Group and within the ESA Permafrost CCI project to include InSAR-based kinematic information in rock glacier inventories. Nine operators applied these guidelines to 11 regions worldwide; more than 3600 rock glaciers are classified according to their kinematics. We test and demonstrate the feasibility of applying common rules to produce homogeneous kinematic inventories at global scale, useful for hydrological and climate change purposes.
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Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 801–818, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-801-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-801-2024, 2024
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In this paper, we use machine learning to automatically outline landforms based on their characteristics. We test several methods to identify the most accurate and then proceed to develop the most accurate to improve its accuracy further. We manage to outline landforms with 65 %–75 % accuracy, at a resolution of 10 m, thanks to high-quality/high-resolution elevation data. We find that it is possible to run this method at a country scale to quickly produce landform inventories for future studies.
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The Cryosphere, 17, 5477–5497, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-5477-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-5477-2023, 2023
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Permafrost (permanently frozen ground) is widespread in the mountains of Norway and Iceland. Several boreholes were drilled after 1999 for long-term permafrost monitoring. We document a strong warming of permafrost, including the development of unfrozen bodies in the permafrost. Warming and degradation of mountain permafrost may lead to more natural hazards.
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The Cryosphere, 17, 2919–2940, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2919-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2919-2023, 2023
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Justyna Czekirda, Bernd Etzelmüller, Sebastian Westermann, Ketil Isaksen, and Florence Magnin
The Cryosphere, 17, 2725–2754, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2725-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2725-2023, 2023
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Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 2607–2647, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-2607-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-2607-2023, 2023
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The CryoGrid community model is a new tool for simulating ground temperatures and the water and ice balance in cold regions. It is a modular design, which makes it possible to test different schemes to simulate, for example, permafrost ground in an efficient way. The model contains tools to simulate frozen and unfrozen ground, snow, glaciers, and other massive ice bodies, as well as water bodies.
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EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-671, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-671, 2023
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In this study, we apply an electrical method in a high mountain permafrost terrain in the Italian Alps, where long-term borehole temperature data are available for validation. In particular, we investigate the frequency dependence of the electrical properties for seasonal and annual variations along three years monitoring period. We demonstrate that our method is capable of resolving temporal changes in the thermal state and the ice/water ratio associated with seasonal freeze-thaw processes.
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EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-321, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-321, 2023
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Coastal rock cliffs on Svalbard are considered to be fairly stable, however, long-term trends of coastal retreat rates are unknown so far. This study presents changes in the coastline along Brøgger Peninsula, Svalbard, based on aerial images from 1970, 1990, 2010 and 2021. Our analysis shows that coastal retreat rates accelerate in the time period 2010–2021, which coincides with increasing storminess, retreating sea ice and increasing ground temperatures.
Cas Renette, Kristoffer Aalstad, Juditha Aga, Robin Benjamin Zweigel, Bernd Etzelmüller, Karianne Staalesen Lilleøren, Ketil Isaksen, and Sebastian Westermann
Earth Surf. Dynam., 11, 33–50, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-33-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-33-2023, 2023
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Aldo Bertone, Chloé Barboux, Xavier Bodin, Tobias Bolch, Francesco Brardinoni, Rafael Caduff, Hanne H. Christiansen, Margaret M. Darrow, Reynald Delaloye, Bernd Etzelmüller, Ole Humlum, Christophe Lambiel, Karianne S. Lilleøren, Volkmar Mair, Gabriel Pellegrinon, Line Rouyet, Lucas Ruiz, and Tazio Strozzi
The Cryosphere, 16, 2769–2792, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2769-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-2769-2022, 2022
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We extend the application of electrical methods to characterize alpine permafrost using the so-called induced polarization (IP) effect associated with the storage of charges at the interface between liquid and solid phases. We investigate different field protocols to enhance data quality and conclude that with appropriate measurement and processing procedures, the characteristic dependence of the IP response of frozen rocks improves the assessment of thermal state and ice content in permafrost.
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The Arctic has large areas of small mounds that are caused by ice lifting up the soil. Snow blown by wind gathers in hollows next to these mounds, insulating them in winter. The hollows tend to be wetter, and thus the soil absorbs more heat in summer. The warm wet soil in the hollows decomposes, releasing methane. We have made a model of this, and we have tested how it behaves and whether it looks like sites in Scandinavia and Siberia. Sometimes we get more methane than a model without mounds.
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Léo C. P. Martin, Jan Nitzbon, Johanna Scheer, Kjetil S. Aas, Trond Eiken, Moritz Langer, Simon Filhol, Bernd Etzelmüller, and Sebastian Westermann
The Cryosphere, 15, 3423–3442, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3423-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3423-2021, 2021
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It is important to understand how permafrost landscapes respond to climate changes because their thaw can contribute to global warming. We investigate how a common permafrost morphology degrades using both field observations of the surface elevation and numerical modeling. We show that numerical models accounting for topographic changes related to permafrost degradation can reproduce the observed changes in nature and help us understand how parameters such as snow influence this phenomenon.
Juditha Undine Schmidt, Bernd Etzelmüller, Thomas Vikhamar Schuler, Florence Magnin, Julia Boike, Moritz Langer, and Sebastian Westermann
The Cryosphere, 15, 2491–2509, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2491-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-2491-2021, 2021
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This study presents rock surface temperatures (RSTs) of steep high-Arctic rock walls on Svalbard from 2016 to 2020. The field data show that coastal cliffs are characterized by warmer RSTs than inland locations during winter seasons. By running model simulations, we analyze factors leading to that effect, calculate the surface energy balance and simulate different future scenarios. Both field data and model results can contribute to a further understanding of RST in high-Arctic rock walls.
Christian Halla, Jan Henrik Blöthe, Carla Tapia Baldis, Dario Trombotto Liaudat, Christin Hilbich, Christian Hauck, and Lothar Schrott
The Cryosphere, 15, 1187–1213, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-1187-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-1187-2021, 2021
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In the semi-arid to arid Andes of Argentina, rock glaciers contain invisible and unknown amounts of ground ice that could become more important in future for the water availability during the dry season. The study shows that the investigated rock glacier represents an important long-term ice reservoir in the dry mountain catchment and that interannual changes of ground ice can store and release significant amounts of annual precipitation.
Maximilian Weigand, Florian M. Wagner, Jonas K. Limbrock, Christin Hilbich, Christian Hauck, and Andreas Kemna
Geosci. Instrum. Method. Data Syst., 9, 317–336, https://doi.org/10.5194/gi-9-317-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/gi-9-317-2020, 2020
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In times of global warming, permafrost is starting to degrade at alarming rates, requiring new and improved characterization approaches. We describe the design and test installation, as well as detailed data quality assessment, of a monitoring system used to capture natural electrical potentials in the subsurface. These self-potential signals are of great interest for the noninvasive investigation of water flow in the non-frozen or partially frozen subsurface.
Florence Magnin, Bernd Etzelmüller, Sebastian Westermann, Ketil Isaksen, Paula Hilger, and Reginald L. Hermanns
Earth Surf. Dynam., 7, 1019–1040, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-1019-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-1019-2019, 2019
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This study proposes the first permafrost (i.e. ground with temperature permanently < 0 °C) map covering the steep rock slopes of Norway. It was created by using rock temperature data collected at the near surface of 25 rock walls spread across the country between 2010 and 2018. The map shows that permafrost mostly exists above 1300–1400 m a.s.l. in southern Norway and close to sea level in northern Norway. The results have strong potential for the study of rock wall sliding and failure.
Coline Mollaret, Christin Hilbich, Cécile Pellet, Adrian Flores-Orozco, Reynald Delaloye, and Christian Hauck
The Cryosphere, 13, 2557–2578, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-2557-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-2557-2019, 2019
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We present a long-term multisite electrical resistivity tomography monitoring network (more than 1000 datasets recorded from six mountain permafrost sites). Despite harsh and remote measurement conditions, the datasets are of good quality and show consistent spatio-temporal variations yielding significant added value to point-scale borehole information. Observed long-term trends are similar for all permafrost sites, showing ongoing permafrost thaw and ground ice loss due to climatic conditions.
Benjamin Mewes, Christin Hilbich, Reynald Delaloye, and Christian Hauck
The Cryosphere, 11, 2957–2974, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-2957-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-2957-2017, 2017
Sebastian Westermann, Maria Peter, Moritz Langer, Georg Schwamborn, Lutz Schirrmeister, Bernd Etzelmüller, and Julia Boike
The Cryosphere, 11, 1441–1463, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1441-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1441-2017, 2017
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We demonstrate a remote-sensing-based scheme estimating the evolution of ground temperature and active layer thickness by means of a ground thermal model. A comparison to in situ observations from the Lena River delta in Siberia indicates that the model is generally capable of reproducing the annual temperature regime and seasonal thawing of the ground. The approach could hence be a first step towards remote detection of ground thermal conditions in permafrost areas.
Luc Girod, Christopher Nuth, Andreas Kääb, Bernd Etzelmüller, and Jack Kohler
The Cryosphere, 11, 827–840, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-827-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-827-2017, 2017
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While gathering data on a changing environment is often a costly and complicated endeavour, it is also the backbone of all research. What if one could measure elevation change by just strapping a camera and a hiking GPS under an helicopter or a small airplane used for transportation and gather data on the ground bellow the flight path? In this article, we present a way to do exactly that and show an example survey where it helped compute the volume of ice lost by a glacier in Svalbard.
Amund F. Borge, Sebastian Westermann, Ingvild Solheim, and Bernd Etzelmüller
The Cryosphere, 11, 1–16, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1-2017, 2017
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Palsas and peat plateaus are permafrost landforms in subarctic mires which constitute sensitive ecosystems with strong significance for vegetation, wildlife, hydrology and carbon cycle. We have systematically mapped the occurrence of palsas and peat plateaus in northern Norway by interpretation of aerial images from the 1950s until today. The results show that about half of the area of palsas and peat plateaus has disappeared due to lateral erosion and melting of ground ice in the last 50 years.
Antoine Marmy, Jan Rajczak, Reynald Delaloye, Christin Hilbich, Martin Hoelzle, Sven Kotlarski, Christophe Lambiel, Jeannette Noetzli, Marcia Phillips, Nadine Salzmann, Benno Staub, and Christian Hauck
The Cryosphere, 10, 2693–2719, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-2693-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-2693-2016, 2016
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This paper presents a new semi-automated method to calibrate the 1-D soil model COUP. It is the first time (as far as we know) that this approach is developed for mountain permafrost. It is applied at six test sites in the Swiss Alps. In a second step, the calibrated model is used for RCM-based simulations with specific downscaling of RCM data to the borehole scale. We show projections of the permafrost evolution at the six sites until the end of the century and according to the A1B scenario.
Kjersti Gisnås, Sebastian Westermann, Thomas Vikhamar Schuler, Kjetil Melvold, and Bernd Etzelmüller
The Cryosphere, 10, 1201–1215, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-1201-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-1201-2016, 2016
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In wind exposed areas snow redistribution results in large spatial variability in ground temperatures. In these areas, the ground temperature of a grid cell must be determined based on the distribution, and not the average, of snow depths. We employ distribution functions of snow in a regional permafrost model, showing highly improved representation of ground temperatures. By including snow distributions, we find the permafrost area to be nearly twice as large as what is modelled without.
S. Westermann, M. Langer, J. Boike, M. Heikenfeld, M. Peter, B. Etzelmüller, and G. Krinner
Geosci. Model Dev., 9, 523–546, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-9-523-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-9-523-2016, 2016
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Thawing of permafrost is governed by a complex interplay of different processes, of which only conductive heat transfer is taken into account in most model studies. We present a new land-surface scheme designed for permafrost applications, CryoGrid 3, which constitutes a flexible platform to explore new parameterizations for a range of permafrost processes.
S. Westermann, T. I. Østby, K. Gisnås, T. V. Schuler, and B. Etzelmüller
The Cryosphere, 9, 1303–1319, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-1303-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-1303-2015, 2015
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We use remotely sensed land surface temperature and land cover in conjunction with air temperature and snowfall from a reanalysis product as input for a simple permafrost model. The scheme is applied to the permafrost regions bordering the North Atlantic. A comparison with ground temperatures in boreholes suggests a modeling accuracy of 2 to 2.5 °C.
K. Gisnås, S. Westermann, T. V. Schuler, T. Litherland, K. Isaksen, J. Boike, and B. Etzelmüller
The Cryosphere, 8, 2063–2074, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-2063-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-2063-2014, 2014
S. Westermann, T. V. Schuler, K. Gisnås, and B. Etzelmüller
The Cryosphere, 7, 719–739, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-719-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-719-2013, 2013
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Estimating surface water availability in high mountain rock slopes using a numerical energy balance model
Sediment source and sink identification using Sentinel-2 and a small network of turbidimeters on the Vjosa River
Spatiotemporal bedload transport patterns over two-dimensional bedforms
Ice-buttressing-controlled rock slope failure on a cirque headwall, Lake District, UK
The probabilistic nature of dune collisions in 2D
Shape still matters: rockfall interactions with trees and deadwood in a mountain forest uncover a new facet of rock shape dependency
Earthquake contributions to coastal cliff retreat
Morphologic and morphometric differences between gullies formed in different substrates on Mars: new insights into the gully formation processes
Testing the sensitivity of the CAESAR-Lisflood landscape evolution model to grid cell size
Thomas J. Barnes, Thomas V. Schuler, Simon Filhol, and Karianne S. Lilleøren
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 801–818, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-801-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-801-2024, 2024
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In this paper, we use machine learning to automatically outline landforms based on their characteristics. We test several methods to identify the most accurate and then proceed to develop the most accurate to improve its accuracy further. We manage to outline landforms with 65 %–75 % accuracy, at a resolution of 10 m, thanks to high-quality/high-resolution elevation data. We find that it is possible to run this method at a country scale to quickly produce landform inventories for future studies.
Eric Petersen, Regine Hock, and Michael G. Loso
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 727–745, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-727-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-727-2024, 2024
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Ice cliffs are melt hot spots that increase melt rates on debris-covered glaciers which otherwise see a reduction in melt rates. In this study, we show how surface runoff streams contribute to the generation, evolution, and survival of ice cliffs by carving into the glacier and transporting rocky debris. On Kennicott Glacier, Alaska, 33 % of ice cliffs are actively influenced by streams, while nearly half are within 10 m of streams.
Daniel O'Hara, Liran Goren, Roos M. J. van Wees, Benjamin Campforts, Pablo Grosse, Pierre Lahitte, Gabor Kereszturi, and Matthieu Kervyn
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 709–726, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-709-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-709-2024, 2024
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Understanding how volcanic edifices develop drainage basins remains unexplored in landscape evolution. Using digital evolution models of volcanoes with varying ages, we quantify the geometries of their edifices and associated drainage basins through time. We find that these metrics correlate with edifice age and are thus useful indicators of a volcano’s history. We then develop a generalized model for how volcano basins develop and compare our results to basin evolution in other settings.
Brayden Noh, Omar Wani, Kieran B. J. Dunne, and Michael P. Lamb
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 691–708, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-691-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-691-2024, 2024
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In this paper, we propose a framework for generating risk maps that provide the probabilities of erosion due to river migration. This framework uses concepts from probability theory to learn the river migration model's parameter values from satellite data while taking into account parameter uncertainty. Our analysis shows that such geomorphic risk estimation is more reliable than models that do not explicitly consider various sources of variability and uncertainty.
Steven Y. J. Lai, David Amblas, Aaron Micallef, and Hervé Capart
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 621–640, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-621-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-621-2024, 2024
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This study explores the creation of submarine canyons and hanging-wall fans on active faults, which can be defined by gravity-dominated breaching and underflow-dominated diffusion processes. The study reveals the self-similarity in canyon–fan long profiles, uncovers Hack’s scaling relationship and proposes a formula to estimate fan volume using canyon length. This is validated by global data from source-to-sink systems, providing insights into deep-water sedimentary processes.
Anuska Narayanan, Sagy Cohen, and John R. Gardner
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 581–599, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-581-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-581-2024, 2024
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This study investigates the profound impact of deforestation in the Amazon on sediment dynamics. Novel remote sensing data and statistical analyses reveal significant changes, especially in heavily deforested regions, with rapid effects within a year. In less disturbed areas, a 1- to 2-year lag occurs, influenced by natural sediment shifts and human activities. These findings highlight the need to understand the consequences of human activity for our planet's future.
Jacob Hardt, Tim P. Dooley, and Michael R. Hudec
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 559–579, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-559-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-559-2024, 2024
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We investigate the reaction of salt structures on ice sheet transgressions. We used a series of sandbox models that enabled us to experiment with scaled-down versions of salt bodies from northern Germany. The strongest reactions occurred when large salt pillows were partly covered by the ice load. Subsurface salt structures may play an important role in the energy transition, e.g., as energy storage. Thus, it is important to understand all processes that affect their stability.
Prakash Pokhrel, Mikael Attal, Hugh D. Sinclair, Simon M. Mudd, and Mark Naylor
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 515–536, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-515-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-515-2024, 2024
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Pebbles become increasingly rounded during downstream transport in rivers due to abrasion. This study quantifies pebble roundness along the length of two Himalayan rivers. We demonstrate that roundness increases with downstream distance and that the rates are dependent on rock type. We apply this to reconstructing travel distances and hence the size of ancient Himalaya. Results show that the ancient river network was larger than the modern one, indicating that there has been river capture.
Jens Martin Turowski, Aaron Bufe, and Stefanie Tofelde
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 493–514, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-493-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-493-2024, 2024
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Fluvial valleys are ubiquitous landforms, and understanding their formation and evolution affects a wide range of disciplines from archaeology and geology to fish biology. Here, we develop a model to predict the width of fluvial valleys for a wide range of geographic conditions. In the model, fluvial valley width is controlled by the two competing factors of lateral channel mobility and uplift. The model complies with available data and yields a broad range of quantitative predictions.
Daniel J. Ciarletta, Jennifer L. Miselis, Julie C. Bernier, and Arnell S. Forde
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 449–475, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-449-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-449-2024, 2024
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We reconstructed the evolution of Fire Island, a barrier island in New York, USA, to identify drivers of landscape change. Results reveal Fire Island was once divided into multiple inlet-separated islands with distinct features. Later, inlets closed, and Fire Island’s landscape became more uniform as human activities intensified. The island is now less mobile and less likely to resist and recover from storm impacts and sea level rise. This vulnerability may exist for other stabilized barriers.
Chao Zhou, Xibin Tan, Yiduo Liu, and Feng Shi
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 433–448, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-433-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-433-2024, 2024
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The drainage-divide stability provides new insights into both the river network evolution and the tectonic and/or climatic changes. Several methods have been proposed to determine the direction of drainage-divide migration. However, how to quantify the migration rate of drainage divides remains challenging. In this paper, we propose a new method to calculate the migration rate of drainage divides from high-resolution topographic data.
Moritz Altmann, Madlene Pfeiffer, Florian Haas, Jakob Rom, Fabian Fleischer, Tobias Heckmann, Livia Piermattei, Michael Wimmer, Lukas Braun, Manuel Stark, Sarah Betz-Nutz, and Michael Becht
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 399–431, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-399-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-399-2024, 2024
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We show a long-term erosion monitoring of several sections on Little Ice Age lateral moraines with derived sediment yield from historical and current digital elevation modelling (DEM)-based differences. The first study period shows a clearly higher range of variability of sediment yield within the sites than the later periods. In most cases, a decreasing trend of geomorphic activity was observed.
Paul A. Carling
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 381–397, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-381-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-381-2024, 2024
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Edge rounding in Shap granite glacial erratics is an irregular function of distance from the source outcrop in northern England, UK. Block shape is conservative, evolving according to block fracture mechanics – stochastic and silver ratio models – towards either of two attractor states. Progressive reduction in size occurs for blocks transported at the sole of the ice mass where the blocks are subject to compressive and tensile forces of the ice acting against a bedrock or till surface.
Andrew Hollyday, Maureen E. Raymo, Jacqueline Austermann, Fred Richards, Mark Hoggard, and Alessio Rovere
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-2099, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-2099, 2024
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Sea level was significantly higher during the Pliocene Epoch, around three million years ago. The present-day elevations of shorelines that formed in the past provide data constraint on the extent of ice sheet melt and the global sea level response under warm Pliocene conditions. In this study, we identify ten escarpments that formed from wavecut erosion during Pliocene times and compare their elevations with model predictions of solid Earth deformation processes to estimate past sea level.
Gary Parker, Chenge An, Michael P. Lamb, Marcelo H. Garcia, Elizabeth H. Dingle, and Jeremy G. Venditti
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 367–380, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-367-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-367-2024, 2024
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River morphology has traditionally been divided by the size 2 mm. We use dimensionless arguments to show that particles in the 1–5 mm range (i) are the finest range not easily suspended by alluvial flood flows, (ii) are transported preferentially over coarser gravel, and (iii), within limits, are also transported preferentially over sand. We show how fluid viscosity mediates the special status of sediment in this range.
Lindsay Marie Capito, Enrico Pandrin, Walter Bertoldi, Nicola Surian, and Simone Bizzi
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 321–345, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-321-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-321-2024, 2024
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We propose that the pattern of erosion and deposition from repeat topographic surveys can be a proxy for path length in gravel-bed rivers. With laboratory and field data, we applied tools from signal processing to quantify this periodicity and used these path length estimates to calculate sediment transport using the morphological method. Our results highlight the potential to expand the use of the morphological method using only remotely sensed data as well as its limitations.
Xuxu Wu, Jonathan Malarkey, Roberto Fernández, Jaco H. Baas, Ellen Pollard, and Daniel R. Parsons
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 231–247, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-231-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-231-2024, 2024
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The seabed changes from flat to rippled in response to the frictional influence of waves and currents. This experimental study has shown that the speed of this change, the size of ripples that result and even whether ripples appear also depend on the amount of sticky mud present. This new classification on the basis of initial mud content should lead to improvements in models of seabed change in present environments by engineers and the interpretation of past environments by geologists.
Andrea D'Alpaos, Davide Tognin, Laura Tommasini, Luigi D'Alpaos, Andrea Rinaldo, and Luca Carniello
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 181–199, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-181-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-181-2024, 2024
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Sediment erosion induced by wind waves is one of the main drivers of the morphological evolution of shallow tidal environments. However, a reliable description of erosion events for the long-term morphodynamic modelling of tidal systems is still lacking. By statistically characterizing sediment erosion dynamics in the Venice Lagoon over the last 4 centuries, we set up a novel framework for a synthetic, yet reliable, description of erosion events in tidal systems.
Davide Tognin, Andrea D'Alpaos, Luigi D'Alpaos, Andrea Rinaldo, and Luca Carniello
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 201–218, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-201-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-201-2024, 2024
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Reliable quantification of sediment transport processes is necessary to understand the fate of shallow tidal environments. Here we present a framework for the description of suspended sediment dynamics to quantify deposition in the long-term modelling of shallow tidal systems. This characterization, together with that of erosion events, allows one to set up synthetic, yet reliable, models for the long-term evolution of tidal landscapes.
Emma L. S. Graf, Hugh D. Sinclair, Mikaël Attal, Boris Gailleton, Basanta Raj Adhikari, and Bishnu Raj Baral
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 135–161, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-135-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-135-2024, 2024
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Using satellite images, we show that, unlike other examples of earthquake-affected rivers, the rivers of central Nepal experienced little increase in sedimentation following the 2015 Gorkha earthquake. Instead, a catastrophic flood occurred in 2021 that buried towns and agricultural land under up to 10 m of sediment. We show that intense storms remobilised glacial sediment from high elevations causing much a greater impact than flushing of earthquake-induced landslides.
Mohamad Nasr, Adele Johannot, Thomas Geay, Sebastien Zanker, Jules Le Guern, and Alain Recking
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 117–134, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-117-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-117-2024, 2024
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Hydrophones are used to monitor sediment transport in the river by listening to the acoustic noise generated by particle impacts on the riverbed. However, this acoustic noise is modified by the river flow and can cause misleading information about sediment transport. This article proposes a model that corrects the measured acoustic signal. Testing the model showed that the corrected signal is better correlated with bedload flux in the river.
Byungho Kang, Rusty A. Feagin, Thomas Huff, and Orencio Durán Vinent
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 105–115, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-105-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-105-2024, 2024
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We provide a detailed characterization of the frequency, intensity and duration of flooding events at a site along the Texas coast. Our analysis demonstrates the suitability of relatively simple wave run-up models to estimate the frequency and intensity of coastal flooding. Our results validate and expand a probabilistic model of coastal flooding driven by wave run-up that can then be used in coastal risk management in response to sea level rise.
Shunsuke Oya, Fumitoshi Imaizumi, and Shoki Takayama
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 67–86, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-67-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-67-2024, 2024
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The monitoring of pore water pressure in fully and partly saturated debris flows was performed at Ohya landslide scar, central Japan. The pore water pressure in some partly saturated flows greatly exceeded the hydrostatic pressure. The depth gradient of the pore water pressure in the lower part of the flow was generally higher than the upper part of the flow. We conclude that excess pore water pressure is present in many debris flow surges and is an important mechanism in debris flow behavior.
Gabriele Barile, Marco Redolfi, and Marco Tubino
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 87–103, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-87-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-87-2024, 2024
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River bifurcations often show the closure of one branch (avulsion), whose causes are still poorly understood. Our model shows that when one branch stops transporting sediments, the other considerably erodes and captures much more flow, resulting in a self-sustaining process. This phenomenon intensifies when increasing the length of the branches, eventually leading to branch closure. This work may help to understand when avulsions occur and thus to design sustainable river restoration projects.
Dieter Rickenmann
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 11–34, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-11-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-11-2024, 2024
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Field measurements of the bedload flux with a high temporal resolution in a steep mountain stream were used to analyse the transport fluctuations as a function of the flow conditions. The disequilibrium ratio, a proxy for the solid particle concentration in the flow, was found to influence the sediment transport behaviour, and above-average disequilibrium conditions – associated with a larger sediment availability on the streambed – substantially affect subsequent transport conditions.
Byungho Kang, Rusty A. Feagin, Thomas Huff, and Orencio Durán Vinent
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 1–10, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-1-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-1-2024, 2024
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Coastal flooding can cause significant damage to coastal ecosystems, infrastructure, and communities and is expected to increase in frequency with the acceleration of sea level rise. In order to respond to it, it is crucial to measure and model their frequency and intensity. Here, we show deep-learning techniques can be successfully used to automatically detect flooding events from complex coastal imagery, opening the way to real-time monitoring and data acquisition for model development.
Nil Carrion-Bertran, Albert Falqués, Francesca Ribas, Daniel Calvete, Rinse de Swart, Ruth Durán, Candela Marco-Peretó, Marta Marcos, Angel Amores, Tim Toomey, Àngels Fernández-Mora, and Jorge Guillén
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-2721, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-2721, 2023
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The sensitivity to the wave and sea-level forcing sources in predicting a 6-month embayed beach evolution is assessed using two different morphodynamic models. After a successful model calibration using in-situ data, other sources are applied. The wave source choice is critical: hindcast data provide wrong results due to an angle bias whilst the correct dynamics is recovered with the wave conditions from an offshore buoy. The use of different sea-level sources gives no significant differences.
Judith Y. Zomer, Bart Vermeulen, and Antonius J. F. Hoitink
Earth Surf. Dynam., 11, 1283–1298, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-1283-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-1283-2023, 2023
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Secondary bedforms that are superimposed on large, primary dunes likely play a large role in fluvial systems. This study demonstrates that they can be omnipresent. Especially during peak flows, they grow large and can have steep slopes, likely affecting flood risk and sediment transport dynamics. Primary dune morphology determines whether they continuously or intermittently migrate. During discharge peaks, the secondary bedforms can become the dominant dune scale.
Matthew C. Morriss, Benjamin Lehmann, Benjamin Campforts, George Brencher, Brianna Rick, Leif S. Anderson, Alexander L. Handwerger, Irina Overeem, and Jeffrey Moore
Earth Surf. Dynam., 11, 1251–1274, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-1251-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-1251-2023, 2023
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In this paper, we investigate the 28 June 2022 collapse of the Chaos Canyon landslide in Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado, USA. We find that the landslide was moving prior to its collapse and took place at peak spring snowmelt; temperature modeling indicates the potential presence of permafrost. We hypothesize that this landslide could be part of the broader landscape evolution changes to alpine terrain caused by a warming climate, leading to thawing alpine permafrost.
Christopher Tomsett and Julian Leyland
Earth Surf. Dynam., 11, 1223–1249, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-1223-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-1223-2023, 2023
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Vegetation influences how rivers change through time, yet the way in which we analyse vegetation is limited. Current methods collect detailed data at the individual plant level or determine dominant vegetation types across larger areas. Herein, we use UAVs to collect detailed vegetation datasets for a 1 km length of river and link vegetation properties to channel evolution occurring within the study site, providing a new method for investigating the influence of vegetation on river systems.
Rabab Yassine, Ludovic Cassan, Hélène Roux, Olivier Frysou, and François Pérès
Earth Surf. Dynam., 11, 1199–1221, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-1199-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-1199-2023, 2023
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Predicting river morphology evolution is very complicated, especially for mountain rivers with complex morphologies such as the Lac des Gaves reach in France. A 2D hydromorphological model was developed to reproduce the channel's evolution and provide reliable volumetric predictions while revealing the challenge of choosing adapted sediment transport and friction laws. Our model can provide decision-makers with reliable predictions to design suitable restoration measures for this reach.
Daisuke Harada and Shinji Egashira
Earth Surf. Dynam., 11, 1183–1197, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-1183-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-1183-2023, 2023
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This paper proposes a method for describing large-wood behavior in terms of the convection equation and the storage equation, which are associated with active sediment erosion and deposition. Compared to the existing Lagrangian method, the proposed method can easily simulate the behavior of large wood in the flow field with active sediment transport. The method is applied to the flood disaster in the Akatani River in 2017, and the 2-D flood flow computations are successfully performed.
Hemanti Sharma and Todd A. Ehlers
Earth Surf. Dynam., 11, 1161–1181, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-1161-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-1161-2023, 2023
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Seasonality in precipitation (P) and vegetation (V) influences catchment erosion (E), although which factor plays the dominant role is unclear. In this study, we performed a sensitivity analysis of E to P–V seasonality through numerical modeling. Our results suggest that P variations strongly influence seasonal variations in E, while the effect of seasonal V variations is secondary but significant. This is more pronounced in moderate and least pronounced in extreme environmental settings.
Eduardo Gomez-de la Peña, Giovanni Coco, Colin Whittaker, and Jennifer Montaño
Earth Surf. Dynam., 11, 1145–1160, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-1145-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-1145-2023, 2023
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Predicting how shorelines change over time is a major challenge in coastal research. We here have turned to deep learning (DL), a data-driven modelling approach, to predict the movement of shorelines using observations from a camera system in New Zealand. The DL models here implemented succeeded in capturing the variability and distribution of the observed shoreline data. Overall, these findings indicate that DL has the potential to enhance the accuracy of current shoreline change predictions.
Christoph Rettinger, Mina Tabesh, Ulrich Rüde, Stefan Vollmer, and Roy M. Frings
Earth Surf. Dynam., 11, 1097–1115, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-1097-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-1097-2023, 2023
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Packing models promise efficient and accurate porosity predictions of fluvial sediment deposits. In this study, three packing models were reviewed, calibrated, and validated. Only two of the models were able to handle the continuous and large grain size distributions typically encountered in rivers. We showed that an extension by a cohesion model is necessary and developed guidelines for successful predictions in different rivers.
Alexander A. Ermilov, Gergely Benkő, and Sándor Baranya
Earth Surf. Dynam., 11, 1061–1095, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-1061-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-1061-2023, 2023
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A novel, artificial-intelligence-based riverbed sediment analysis methodology is introduced that uses underwater images to identify the characteristic sediment classes. The main novelties of the procedure are as follows: underwater images are used, the method enables continuous mapping of the riverbed along the measurement vessel’s route contrary to conventional techniques, the method is cost-efficient, and the method works without scaling.
Kelly M. Sanks, John B. Shaw, Samuel M. Zapp, José Silvestre, Ripul Dutt, and Kyle M. Straub
Earth Surf. Dynam., 11, 1035–1060, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-1035-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-1035-2023, 2023
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River deltas encompass many depositional environments (like channels and wetlands) that interact to produce coastal environments that change through time. The processes leading to sedimentation in wetlands are often neglected from physical delta models. We show that wetland sedimentation constrains flow to the channels, changes sedimentation rates, and produces channels more akin to field-scale deltas. These results have implications for the management of these vulnerable coastal landscapes.
Katharina Wetterauer and Dirk Scherler
Earth Surf. Dynam., 11, 1013–1033, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-1013-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-1013-2023, 2023
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In glacial landscapes, debris supply rates vary spatially and temporally. Rockwall erosion rates derived from cosmogenic 10Be concentrations in medial moraine debris at five Swiss glaciers around Pigne d'Arolla indicate an increase in erosion from the end of the Little Ice Age towards deglaciation but temporally more stable rates over the last ∼100 years. Rockwall erosion rates are higher where rockwalls are steep and north-facing, suggesting a potential slope and temperature control.
Sam Anderson, Nicole Gasparini, and Joel Johnson
Earth Surf. Dynam., 11, 995–1011, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-995-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-995-2023, 2023
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We measured rock strength and amount of fracturing in the two different rock types, sandstones and carbonates, in Last Chance Canyon, New Mexico, USA. Where there is more carbonate bedrock, hills and channels steepen in Last Chance Canyon. This is because the carbonate-type bedrock tends to be more thickly bedded, is less fractured, and is stronger. The carbonate bedrock produces larger boulders than the sandstone bedrock, which can protect the more fractured sandstone bedrock from erosion.
Jens M. Turowski, Gunnar Pruß, Anne Voigtländer, Andreas Ludwig, Angela Landgraf, Florian Kober, and Audrey Bonnelye
Earth Surf. Dynam., 11, 979–994, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-979-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-979-2023, 2023
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Rivers can cut into rocks, and their strength modulates the river's erosion rates. Yet, which properties of the rock control its response to erosive action is poorly understood. Here, we describe parallel experiments to measure rock erosion rates under fluvial impact erosion and the rock's geotechnical properties such as fracture strength, elasticity, and density. Erosion rates vary over a factor of a million between different rock types. We use the data to improve current theory.
Koji Ohata, Hajime Naruse, and Norihiro Izumi
Earth Surf. Dynam., 11, 961–977, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-961-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-961-2023, 2023
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We investigated the influence of sediment transport modes on the formation of bedforms using theoretical analysis. The results of the theoretical analysis were verified with published data of plane beds obtained by fieldwork and laboratory experiments. We found that suspended sand particles can promote the formation of plane beds on a fine-grained bed, which suggests that the presence of suspended particles suppresses the development of dunes under submarine sediment-laden gravity currents.
Matan Ben-Asher, Florence Magnin, Sebastian Westermann, Josué Bock, Emmanuel Malet, Johan Berthet, Ludovic Ravanel, and Philip Deline
Earth Surf. Dynam., 11, 899–915, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-899-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-899-2023, 2023
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Quantitative knowledge of water availability on high mountain rock slopes is very limited. We use a numerical model and field measurements to estimate the water balance at a steep rock wall site. We show that snowmelt is the main source of water at elevations >3600 m and that snowpack hydrology and sublimation are key factors. The new information presented here can be used to improve the understanding of thermal, hydrogeological, and mechanical processes on steep mountain rock slopes.
Jessica Droujko, Srividya Hariharan Sudha, Gabriel Singer, and Peter Molnar
Earth Surf. Dynam., 11, 881–897, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-881-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-881-2023, 2023
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We combined data from satellite images with data measured from a kayak in order to understand the propagation of fine sediment in the Vjosa River. We were able to find some storm-activated and some permanent sources of sediment. We also estimated how much fine sediment is carried into the Adriatic Sea by the Vjosa River: approximately 2.5 Mt per year, which matches previous findings. With our work, we hope to show the potential of open-access satellite images.
Kate C. P. Leary, Leah Tevis, and Mark Schmeeckle
Earth Surf. Dynam., 11, 835–847, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-835-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-835-2023, 2023
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Despite the importance of bedforms (e.g., ripples, dunes) to sediment transport, the details of sediment transport on a sub-bedform scale are poorly understood. This paper investigates sediment transport in the downstream and cross-stream directions over bedforms with straight crests. We find that the patterns of bedload transport are highly variable on the sub-bedform scale, which is important for our understanding of the evolution of bedforms with complex crest geometries.
Paul A. Carling, John D. Jansen, Teng Su, Jane Lund Andersen, and Mads Faurschou Knudsen
Earth Surf. Dynam., 11, 817–833, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-817-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-817-2023, 2023
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Many steep glaciated rock walls collapsed when the Ice Age ended. How ice supports a steep rock wall until the ice decays is poorly understood. A collapsed rock wall was surveyed in the field and numerically modelled. Cosmogenic exposure dates show it collapsed and became ice-free ca. 18 ka ago. The model showed that the rock wall failed very slowly because ice was buttressing the slope. Dating other collapsed rock walls can improve understanding of how and when the last Ice Age ended.
Paul A. Jarvis, Clement Narteau, Olivier Rozier, and Nathalie M. Vriend
Earth Surf. Dynam., 11, 803–815, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-803-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-803-2023, 2023
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Sand dune migration velocity is inversely proportional to dune size. Consequently, smaller, faster dunes can collide with larger, slower downstream dunes. Such collisions can result in either coalescence or ejection, whereby the dunes exchange mass but remain separate. Our numerical simulations show that the outcome depends probabilistically on the dune size ratio, which we describe through an empirical function. Our numerical predictions compare favourably against experimental observations.
Adrian Ringenbach, Peter Bebi, Perry Bartelt, Andreas Rigling, Marc Christen, Yves Bühler, Andreas Stoffel, and Andrin Caviezel
Earth Surf. Dynam., 11, 779–801, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-779-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-779-2023, 2023
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Swiss researchers carried out repeated rockfall experiments with rocks up to human sizes in a steep mountain forest. This study focuses mainly on the effects of the rock shape and lying deadwood. In forested areas, cubic-shaped rocks showed a longer mean runout distance than platy-shaped rocks. Deadwood especially reduced the runouts of these cubic rocks. The findings enrich standard practices in modern rockfall hazard zoning assessments and strongly urge the incorporation of rock shape effects.
Colin K. Bloom, Corinne Singeisen, Timothy Stahl, Andrew Howell, and Chris Massey
Earth Surf. Dynam., 11, 757–778, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-757-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-757-2023, 2023
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Earthquakes can cause damaging coastal cliff retreat, but we have a limited understanding of how these infrequent events influence multidecadal retreat. This makes hazard planning a challenge. In this study, we use historic aerial images to measure coastal cliff-top retreat at a site in New Zealand. We find that earthquakes account for close to half of multidecadal retreat at this site, and our results have helped us to develop tools for estimating the influence of earthquakes at other sites.
Rishitosh K. Sinha, Dwijesh Ray, Tjalling De Haas, Susan J. Conway, and Axel Noblet
Earth Surf. Dynam., 11, 713–730, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-713-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-713-2023, 2023
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Our detailed investigation of Martian gullies formed in different substrates in 29 craters distributed between 30°–75° S latitude suggests that they can be differentiated from one another in terms of (1) morphology and length of alcoves and (2) mean gradient of the gully fans. The comparison between the Melton ratio, alcove length, and fan gradient of Martian and terrestrial gullies suggests that Martian gullies were likely formed by terrestrial debris-flow-like processes in the past.
Christopher J. Skinner and Thomas J. Coulthard
Earth Surf. Dynam., 11, 695–711, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-695-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-695-2023, 2023
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Landscape evolution models allow us to simulate the way the Earth's surface is shaped and help us to understand relevant processes, in turn helping us to manage landscapes better. The models typically represent the land surface using a grid of square cells of equal size, averaging heights in those squares. This study shows that the size chosen by the modeller for these grid cells is important, with larger sizes making sediment output events larger but less frequent.
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Short summary
In northern Norway we have observed several rock glaciers at sea level. Rock glaciers are landforms that only form under the influence of permafrost, which is frozen ground. Our investigations show that the rock glaciers are probably not active under the current climate but most likely were active in the recent past. This shows how the Arctic now changes due to climate changes and also how similar areas in currently colder climates will change in the future.
In northern Norway we have observed several rock glaciers at sea level. Rock glaciers are...
