Articles | Volume 13, issue 1
https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-119-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-119-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
03 Feb 2025
Research article |
| 03 Feb 2025
| 03 Feb 2025
A numerical model for duricrust formation by water table fluctuations
GFZ Helmholtz Centre for Geosciences, Telegrafenberg, 14473 Potsdam, Germany
Institute of Geosciences, University of Potsdam, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
GFZ Helmholtz Centre for Geosciences, Telegrafenberg, 14473 Potsdam, Germany
Institute of Geosciences, University of Potsdam, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
François Guillocheau
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Univ Rennes, CNRS, Géosciences Rennes – UMR 6118, 35000 Rennes, France
Cécile Robin
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Univ Rennes, CNRS, Géosciences Rennes – UMR 6118, 35000 Rennes, France
Related authors
No articles found.
Pierre Dietrich, François Guillocheau, Guilhem A. Douillet, Neil P. Griffis, Guillaume Baby, Daniel P. Le Héron, Laurie Barrier, Maximilien Mathian, Isabel P. Montañez, Cécile Robin, Thomas Gyomlai, Christoph Kettler, and Axel Hofmann
Earth Surf. Dynam., 13, 495–529, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-495-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-495-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
At the evocation of icy landscapes, Africa is not the first place that comes to mind. The modern relief of Southern Africa is generally considered to be a result of uplift and counteracting erosion. We show that some of the modern relief of this region is due to fossil glacial landscapes – striated pavements, valleys, and fjords – tied to an ice age that occurred ca. 300 Myr ago. We focus on how these landscapes have escaped being erased for hundreds of millions of years.
Ruohong Jiao, Shengze Cai, and Jean Braun
Geochronology, 6, 227–245, https://doi.org/10.5194/gchron-6-227-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gchron-6-227-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We demonstrate a machine learning method to estimate the temperature changes in the Earth's crust over time. The method respects physical laws and conditions imposed by users. By using observed rock cooling ages as constraints, the method can be used to estimate the tectonic and landscape evolution of the Earth. We show the applications of the method using a synthetic rock uplift model in 1D and an evolution model of a real mountain range in 3D.
Chuanqi He, Ci-Jian Yang, Jens M. Turowski, Richard F. Ott, Jean Braun, Hui Tang, Shadi Ghantous, Xiaoping Yuan, and Gaia Stucky de Quay
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 1151–1166, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-1151-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-1151-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The shape of drainage basins and rivers holds significant implications for landscape evolution processes and dynamics. We used a global 90 m resolution topography to obtain ~0.7 million drainage basins with sizes over 50 km2. Our dataset contains the spatial distribution of drainage systems and their morphological parameters, supporting fields such as geomorphology, climatology, biology, ecology, hydrology, and natural hazards.
Amanda Lily Wild, Jean Braun, Alexander C. Whittaker, and Sebastien Castelltort
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-351, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-351, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Sediments deposited within river channels form the stratigraphic record, which has been used to interpret tectonic events, basin subsidence, and changes in precipitation long after ancient mountain chains have eroded away. Our work combines methods for estimating gravel fining with a landscape evolution model in order to analyze the grain size preserved within the stratigraphic record with greater complexity (e.g. considering topography and channel dynamics) than past approaches.
Boris Gailleton, Luca C. Malatesta, Guillaume Cordonnier, and Jean Braun
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 71–90, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-71-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-71-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This contribution presents a new method to numerically explore the evolution of mountain ranges and surrounding areas. The method helps in monitoring with details on the timing and travel path of material eroded from the mountain ranges. It is particularly well suited to studies juxtaposing different domains – lakes or multiple rock types, for example – and enables the combination of different processes.
Esteban Acevedo-Trejos, Jean Braun, Katherine Kravitz, N. Alexia Raharinirina, and Benoît Bovy
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 6921–6941, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-6921-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-6921-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The interplay of tectonics and climate influences the evolution of life and the patterns of biodiversity we observe on earth's surface. Here we present an adaptive speciation component coupled with a landscape evolution model that captures the essential earth-surface, ecological, and evolutionary processes that lead to the diversification of taxa. We can illustrate with our tool how life and landforms co-evolve to produce distinct biodiversity patterns on geological timescales.
Ngai-Ham Chan, Moritz Langer, Bennet Juhls, Tabea Rettelbach, Paul Overduin, Kimberly Huppert, and Jean Braun
Earth Surf. Dynam., 11, 259–285, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-259-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-259-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Arctic river deltas influence how nutrients and soil organic carbon, carried by sediments from the Arctic landscape, are retained or released into the Arctic Ocean. Under climate change, the deltas themselves and their ecosystems are becoming more vulnerable. We build upon previous models to reproduce for the first time an important feature ubiquitous to Arctic deltas and simulate its future under climate warming. This can impact the future of Arctic deltas and the carbon release they moderate.
Jean Braun
Earth Surf. Dynam., 10, 301–327, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-10-301-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-10-301-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
By comparing two models for the transport of sediment, we find that they share a similar steady-state solution that adequately predicts the shape of most depositional systems made of a fan and an alluvial plain. The length of the fan is controlled by the size of the mountain drainage area feeding the sedimentary system and its slope by the incoming sedimentary flux. We show that the models differ in their transient behavior to external forcing and are characterized by different response times.
Benjamin Campforts, Charles M. Shobe, Philippe Steer, Matthias Vanmaercke, Dimitri Lague, and Jean Braun
Geosci. Model Dev., 13, 3863–3886, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-3863-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-3863-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Landslides shape the Earth’s surface and are a dominant source of terrestrial sediment. Rivers, then, act as conveyor belts evacuating landslide-produced sediment. Understanding the interaction among rivers and landslides is important to predict the Earth’s surface response to past and future environmental changes and for mitigating natural hazards. We develop HyLands, a new numerical model that provides a toolbox to explore how landslides and rivers interact over several timescales.
Guillaume Cordonnier, Benoît Bovy, and Jean Braun
Earth Surf. Dynam., 7, 549–562, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-549-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-549-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
We propose a new algorithm to solve the problem of flow routing across local depressions in the topography, one of the main computational bottlenecks in landscape evolution models. Our solution is more efficient than the state-of-the-art algorithms, with an optimal linear asymptotic complexity. The algorithm has been designed specifically to be used within landscape evolution models, and also suits more generally the efficient treatment of large digital elevation models.
Jean Braun, Lorenzo Gemignani, and Peter van der Beek
Earth Surf. Dynam., 6, 257–270, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-6-257-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-6-257-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
We present a new method to interpret a type of data that geologists obtained by dating minerals in river sand samples. We show that such data contain information about the spatial distribution of the erosion rate (wear of surface rocks by natural processes such as river incision, land sliding or weathering) in the regions neighboring the river. This is important to understand the nature and efficiency of the processes responsible for surface erosion in mountain belts.
J. Braun, C. Voisin, A. T. Gourlan, and C. Chauvel
Earth Surf. Dynam., 3, 1–14, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-3-1-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-3-1-2015, 2015
Short summary
Short summary
We have derived a simple solution to the stream power law equation governing the erosion of rapidly uplifting tectonic areas assuming that rainfall varies as a periodic function of time. We show that the erosional response of this forcing is characterized by an amplification of the resulting erosional flux variations as well as a time lag. We show how this time lag can be important in interpreting several geological observations.
T. Croissant and J. Braun
Earth Surf. Dynam., 2, 155–166, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2-155-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2-155-2014, 2014
Related subject area
Physical: Geomorphology (including all aspects of fluvial, coastal, aeolian, hillslope and glacial geomorphology)
The glacial paleolandscapes of Southern Africa: the legacy of the Late Paleozoic Ice Age
Multiple equilibrium configurations in river-dominated deltas
Investigating the celerity of propagation for small perturbations and dispersive sediment aggradation under a supercritical flow
Short communication: Multiscale topographic complexity analysis with pyTopoComplexity
Sub-surface processes and heat fluxes at coarse blocky Murtèl rock glacier (Engadine, eastern Swiss Alps): seasonal ice and convective cooling render rock glaciers climate-robust
Influence of alluvial slope on avulsion in river deltas
Surficial sediment remobilization by shear between sediment and water above tsunamigenic megathrust ruptures: experimental study
Haloturbation in the northern Atacama Desert revealed by a hidden subsurface network of calcium sulfate wedges
An evaluation of flow-routing algorithms for calculating contributing area on regular grids
Geometric constraints on tributary fluvial network junction angles
Effect of grain-sorting waves on alternate bar dynamics: Implications of the breakdown of the hydrograph boundary layer
Automatic detection of floating instream large wood in videos using deep learning
Investigating uncertainty and parameter sensitivity in bedform analysis by using a Monte Carlo approach
Geomorphic imprint of high-mountain floods: insights from the 2022 hydrological extreme across the upper Indus River catchment in the northwestern Himalayas
Short communication: Learning How Landscapes Evolve with Neural Operators
Width evolution of channel belts as a random walk
Evidence of slow millennial cliff retreat rates using cosmogenic nuclides in coastal colluvium
Equilibrium distance from long-range dune interactions
Examination of analytical shear stress predictions for coastal dune evolution
Localised geomorphic response to channel-spanning leaky wooden dams
Post-fire evolution of ravel transport regimes in the Diablo Range, CA
Landscape response to tectonic deformation and cyclic climate change since ca. 800 ka in the southern central Andes
The Aare main overdeepening on the northern margin of the European Alps: basins, riegels, and slot canyons
Surface grain-size mapping of braided channels from SfM photogrammetry
A simple model for faceted topographies at normal faults based on an extended stream-power law
Testing floc settling velocity models in rivers and freshwater wetlands
River suspended-sand flux computation with uncertainty estimation using water samples and high-resolution ADCP measurements
Barchan swarm dynamics from a Two-Flank Agent-Based Model
A landslide runout model for sediment transport, landscape evolution, and hazard assessment applications
Tracking slow-moving landslides with PlanetScope data: new perspectives on the satellite's perspective
Topographic metrics for unveiling fault segmentation and tectono-geomorphic evolution with insights into the impact of inherited topography, Ulsan Fault Zone, South Korea
Biomechanical parameters of marram grass (Calamagrostis arenaria) for advanced modeling of dune vegetation
Acceleration of coastal-retreat rates for high-Arctic rock cliffs on Brøggerhalvøya, Svalbard, over the past decade
The impact of bedrock meander cutoffs on 50 kyr scale incision rates, San Juan River, Utah
Sediment aggradation rates for Himalayan Rivers revealed through SAR remote sensing
Spatiotemporal denudation rates of the Swabian Alb escarpment (Southwest Germany) dominated by base-level lowering and lithology
Use of simple analytical solutions in the calibration of Shallow Water Equations debris flow models
How water, temperature, and seismicity control the preconditioning of massive rock slope failure (Hochvogel)
Large structure simulation for landscape evolution models
Terrace formation linked to outburst floods at the Diexi palaeo-landslide dam, upper Minjiang River, eastern Tibetan Plateau
AI-Based Tracking of Fast-Moving Alpine Landforms Using High Frequency Monoscopic Time-Lapse Imagery
Pliocene shorelines and the epeirogenic motion of continental margins: a target dataset for dynamic topography models
Decadal-scale decay of landslide-derived fluvial suspended sediment after Typhoon Morakot
Role of the forcing sources in morphodynamic modelling of an embayed beach
A machine learning approach to the geomorphometric detection of ribbed moraines in Norway
Stream hydrology controls on ice cliff evolution and survival on debris-covered glaciers
Time-varying drainage basin development and erosion on volcanic edifices
Geomorphic risk maps for river migration using probabilistic modeling – a framework
Evolution of submarine canyons and hanging-wall fans: insights from geomorphic experiments and morphodynamic models
Riverine sediment response to deforestation in the Amazon basin
Pierre Dietrich, François Guillocheau, Guilhem A. Douillet, Neil P. Griffis, Guillaume Baby, Daniel P. Le Héron, Laurie Barrier, Maximilien Mathian, Isabel P. Montañez, Cécile Robin, Thomas Gyomlai, Christoph Kettler, and Axel Hofmann
Earth Surf. Dynam., 13, 495–529, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-495-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-495-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
At the evocation of icy landscapes, Africa is not the first place that comes to mind. The modern relief of Southern Africa is generally considered to be a result of uplift and counteracting erosion. We show that some of the modern relief of this region is due to fossil glacial landscapes – striated pavements, valleys, and fjords – tied to an ice age that occurred ca. 300 Myr ago. We focus on how these landscapes have escaped being erased for hundreds of millions of years.
Lorenzo Durante, Nicoletta Tambroni, and Michele Bolla Pittaluga
Earth Surf. Dynam., 13, 455–471, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-455-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-455-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
River deltas evolve due to natural forces and human activities, posing challenges for communities relying on stable water flow. This study examines how different flow distributions shape delta channels. Using a new theoretical model, we identify branch length as the key factor influencing stability. Applying this to Italy's Po River Delta, we highlight areas at risk of change, providing insights for better management and planning.
Hasan Eslami, Erfan Poursoleymanzadeh, Mojtaba Hiteh, Keivan Tavakoli, Melika Yavari Nia, Ehsan Zadehali, Reihaneh Zarrabi, and Alessio Radice
Earth Surf. Dynam., 13, 437–454, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-437-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-437-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
A channel may be aggraded by overloaded sediment. In this study we realize an aggradation experiment and determine the celerity at which an aggradation wave, due to sediment overloading, migrates. We also investigate the celerity of small perturbations, as quantified by mathematical formulations. The celerities of the two kinds are correlated with each other. However, the celerity of small perturbations is larger than the other one, which is less than a few percent of the water velocity.
Larry Syu-Heng Lai, Adam M. Booth, Alison R. Duvall, and Erich Herzig
Earth Surf. Dynam., 13, 417–435, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-417-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-417-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
pyTopoComplexity is an open-source Python tool for multiscale land surface complexity analysis. Applied to a landslide-affected area in Washington, USA, it accurately identified landform features at various scales, enhancing our understanding of landform recovery after disturbances. By integrating with Landlab’s landscape evolution simulations, the software allows researchers to explore how different processes drive the evolution of surface complexity in response to natural forces.
Dominik Amschwand, Jonas Wicky, Martin Scherler, Martin Hoelzle, Bernhard Krummenacher, Anna Haberkorn, Christian Kienholz, and Hansueli Gubler
Earth Surf. Dynam., 13, 365–401, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-365-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-365-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Rock glaciers are comparatively climate-robust permafrost landforms. We estimated the energy budget of the seasonally thawing active layer (AL) of Murtèl rock glacier (Swiss Alps) based on a novel sub-surface sensor array. In the coarse blocky AL, heat is transferred by thermal radiation and air convection. The ground heat flux is largely spent on melting seasonal ice in the AL. Convective cooling and the seasonal ice turnover make rock glaciers climate-robust and shield the permafrost beneath.
Octria A. Prasojo, Trevor B. Hoey, Amanda Owen, and Richard D. Williams
Earth Surf. Dynam., 13, 349–363, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-349-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-349-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Decades of delta avulsion (i.e. channel abrupt jump) studies have not resolved what the main controls of delta avulsion are. Using a computer model, integrated with field observation, analytical, and laboratory-made deltas, we found that the sediment load, which itself is controlled by the steepness of the river upstream of a delta, controls the timing of avulsion. We can now better understand the main cause of abrupt channel changes in deltas, a finding that aids flood risk management in river deltas.
Chloé Seibert, Cecilia McHugh, Chris Paola, Leonardo Seeber, and James Tucker
Earth Surf. Dynam., 13, 341–348, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-341-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-341-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We propose a new mechanism of co-seismic sediment entrainment induced by shear stress at the sediment–water interface during major subduction earthquakes rupturing to the trench. Physical experiments show that flow velocities consistent with long-period earthquake motions can entrain synthetic marine sediment, and high-frequency vertical shaking can enhance this mobilization. They validate the proposed entrainment mechanism, which opens new avenues for paleoseismology in deep-sea environments.
Aline Zinelabedin, Joel Mohren, Maria Wierzbicka-Wieczorek, Tibor Janos Dunai, Stefan Heinze, and Benedikt Ritter
Earth Surf. Dynam., 13, 257–276, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-257-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-257-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
In order to interpret the formation processes of subsurface salt wedges and polygonal patterned grounds from the northern Atacama Desert, we present a multi-methodological approach. Due to the high salt content of the wedges, we suggest that their formation is dominated by subsurface salt dynamics requiring moisture. We assume that the climatic conditions during the wedge growth were slightly wetter than today, offering the potential to use the wedges as palaeoclimate archives.
Alexander B. Prescott, Jon D. Pelletier, Satya Chataut, and Sriram Ananthanarayan
Earth Surf. Dynam., 13, 239–256, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-239-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-239-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Many Earth surface processes are controlled by the spatial pattern of surface water flow. We review commonly used methods for predicting such spatial patterns in digital landform models and document the pros and cons of commonly used methods. We propose a new method that is designed to minimize those limitations and show that it works well in a variety of test cases.
Jon D. Pelletier, Robert G. Hayes, Olivia Hoch, Brendan Fenerty, and Luke A. McGuire
Earth Surf. Dynam., 13, 219–238, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-219-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-219-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We demonstrate that landscapes with more planar initial conditions tend to have lower mean junction angles. Geomorphic processes on alluvial piedmonts result in especially planar initial conditions, consistent with a correlation between junction angles and the presence/absence of Late Cenozoic alluvial deposits and the constraint imposed by the intersection of planar approximations to the topography upslope from tributary junctions. We caution against using junction angles to infer paleoclimate.
Soichi Tanabe and Toshiki Iwasaki
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-103, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-103, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We try to understand how the sediment supply from the upstream river reach affect the downstream river morphology using a numerical model. If the supplied sediment is composed of variety of size class of particles, a small size bed wave that is composed of mainly fine particles (sorting wave) can propagate to downstream very long distance. However, presence of bars suppresses the effect of sorting wave greatly, and thus the sediment supply has limited role in the downstream river morphology.
Janbert Aarnink, Tom Beucler, Marceline Vuaridel, and Virginia Ruiz-Villanueva
Earth Surf. Dynam., 13, 167–189, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-167-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-167-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
This study presents a novel convolutional-neural-network approach for detecting instream large wood in rivers, addressing the need for flexible monitoring methods across diverse data sources. Using a database of 15 228 fully labelled images, the model achieved a weighted mean average precision of 67 %. Fine-tuning parameters and sampling techniques can improve performance by over 10 % in some cases, offering valuable insights into ecosystem management.
Julius Reich and Axel Winterscheid
Earth Surf. Dynam., 13, 191–217, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-191-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-191-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Analyzing the geometry and the dynamics of riverine bedforms (so-called dune tracking) is important for various fields of application and contributes to sound and efficient river and sediment management. We developed a workflow that enables a robust estimation of bedform characteristics and with which comprehensive sensitivity analyses can be carried out. Using a field dataset, we show that the setting of input parameters in bedform analyses can have a significant impact on the results.
Abhishek Kashyap, Kristen L. Cook, and Mukunda Dev Behera
Earth Surf. Dynam., 13, 147–166, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-147-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-147-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Short-lived, high-magnitude flood events across high mountain regions leave substantial geomorphic imprints, which are frequently triggered by excess precipitation, glacial lake outbursts, and natural dam breaches. These catastrophic floods highlight the importance of understanding the complex interaction between climatic, hydrological, and geological forces in bedrock catchments. Extreme floods can have long-term geomorphic consequences on river morphology and fluvial processes.
Gareth G. Roberts
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-307, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-307, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The use of new Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques to learn how landscapes evolve is demonstrated. A few ‘snapshots' of an eroding landscape at different stages of its history provide enough information for AI to ascertain rules governing its evolution. Once the rules are known, predicting landscape evolution is extremely rapid and efficient, providing new tools to understand landscape change.
Jens M. Turowski, Fergus McNab, Aaron Bufe, and Stefanie Tofelde
Earth Surf. Dynam., 13, 97–117, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-97-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-97-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Channel belts comprise the area affected by a river due to lateral migration and floods. As a landform, they affect water resources and flood hazard, and they often host unique ecological communities. We develop a model describing the evolution of channel-belt area over time. The model connects the behaviour of the river to the evolution of the channel belt over a timescale of centuries. A comparison to selected data from experiments and real river systems verifies the random walk approach.
Rémi Bossis, Vincent Regard, Sébastien Carretier, and Sandrine Choy
Earth Surf. Dynam., 13, 71–79, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-71-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-71-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The erosion of rocky coasts occurs episodically through wave action and landslides, constituting a major natural hazard. Documenting the factors that control the coastal retreat rate over millennia is fundamental to evidencing any change in time. However, the known rates to date are essentially representative of the last few decades. Here, we present a new method using the concentration of an isotope, 10Be, in sediment eroded from the cliff to quantify its retreat rate averaged over millennia.
Jean Vérité, Clément Narteau, Olivier Rozier, Jeanne Alkalla, Laurie Barrier, and Sylvain Courrech du Pont
Earth Surf. Dynam., 13, 23–39, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-23-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-23-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Using a numerical model in 2D, we study how two identical dunes interact with each other when exposed to reversing winds. Depending on the distance between the dunes, they either repel or attract each other until they reach an equilibrium distance, which is controlled by the wind strength, wind reversal frequency, and dune size. This process is controlled by the modification of wind flow over dunes of various shapes, influencing the sediment transport downstream.
Orie Cecil, Nicholas Cohn, Matthew Farthing, Sourav Dutta, and Andrew Trautz
Earth Surf. Dynam., 13, 1–22, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-1-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-1-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Using computational fluid dynamics, we analyze the error trends of an analytical shear stress distribution model used to drive aeolian transport for coastal dunes, which are an important line of defense against storm-related flooding hazards. We find that compared to numerical simulations, the analytical model results in a net overprediction of the landward migration rate. Additionally, two data-driven approaches are proposed for reducing the error while maintaining computational efficiency.
Joshua M. Wolstenholme, Christopher J. Skinner, David J. Milan, Robert E. Thomas, and Daniel R. Parsons
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3001, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3001, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Leaky wooden dams are a popular form of natural flood management used to slow the flow of water by increasing floodplain connectivity whilst decreasing connectivity along the river profile. By monitoring two leaky wooden dams in North Yorkshire, UK, we present the geomorphological response to their installation, highlighting that the structures significantly increase channel complexity in response to different river flow conditions.
Hayden L. Jacobson, Danica L. Roth, Gabriel Walton, Margaret Zimmer, and Kerri Johnson
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 1415–1446, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-1415-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-1415-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Loose grains travel farther after a fire because no vegetation is left to stop them. This matters since loose grains at the base of a slope can turn into a debris flow if it rains. To find if grass growing back after a fire had different impacts on grains of different sizes on slopes of different steepness, we dropped thousands of natural grains and measured how far they went. Large grains went farther 7 months after the fire than 11 months after, and small grain movement didn’t change much.
Elizabeth N. Orr, Taylor F. Schildgen, Stefanie Tofelde, Hella Wittmann, and Ricardo N. Alonso
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 1391–1413, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-1391-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-1391-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Fluvial terraces and alluvial fans in the Toro Basin, NW Argentina, record river evolution and global climate cycles over time. Landform dating reveals lower-frequency climate cycles (100 kyr) preserved downstream and higher-frequency cycles (21/40 kyr) upstream, supporting theoretical predications that longer rivers filter out higher-frequency climate signals. This finding improves our understanding of the spatial distribution of sedimentary paleoclimate records within landscapes.
Fritz Schlunegger, Edi Kissling, Dimitri Tibo Bandou, Guilhem Amin Douillet, David Mair, Urs Marti, Regina Reber, Patrick Schläfli, and Michael Alfred Schwenk
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 1371–1389, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-1371-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-1371-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Overdeepenings are bedrock depressions filled with sediment. We combine the results of a gravity survey with drilling data to explore the morphology of such a depression beneath the city of Bern. We find that the target overdeepening comprises two basins >200 m deep. They are separated by a bedrock riegel that itself is cut by narrow canyons up to 150 m deep. We postulate that these structures formed underneath a glacier, where erosion by subglacial meltwater caused the formation of the canyons.
Loïs Ribet, Frédéric Liébault, Laurent Borgniet, Michaël Deschâtres, and Gabriel Melun
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3697, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3697, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This work presents a protocol and a model to get the size of the pebbles in mountain rivers from Unmanned Aerial Vehicle images. A set of 12 rivers located in south-eastern France were photographed to build the model. The results show that the model has little error and should be usable for similar rivers. Grain-size of mountain rivers is an important parameter for environmental diagnostics by mapping the aquatic habitats and for flood management by estimating the pebbles fluxes during floods.
Stefan Hergarten
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 1315–1327, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-1315-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-1315-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Faceted topographies are impressive footprints of active tectonics in geomorphology. This paper investigates the evolution of faceted topographies at normal faults and their interaction with a river network theoretically and numerically. As a main result beyond several relations for the geometry of facets, the horizontal displacement associated with normal faults is crucial for the dissection of initially polygonal facets into triangular facets bounded by almost parallel rivers.
Justin A. Nghiem, Gen K. Li, Joshua P. Harringmeyer, Gerard Salter, Cédric G. Fichot, Luca Cortese, and Michael P. Lamb
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 1267–1294, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-1267-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-1267-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Fine sediment grains in freshwater can cohere into faster-settling particles called flocs, but floc settling velocity theory has not been fully validated. Combining three data sources in novel ways in the Wax Lake Delta, we verified a semi-empirical model relying on turbulence and geochemical factors. For a physics-based model, we showed that the representative grain diameter within flocs relies on floc structure and that heterogeneous flow paths inside flocs increase floc settling velocity.
Jessica Marggraf, Guillaume Dramais, Jérôme Le Coz, Blaise Calmel, Benoît Camenen, David J. Topping, William Santini, Gilles Pierrefeu, and François Lauters
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 1243–1266, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-1243-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-1243-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Suspended-sand fluxes in rivers vary with time and space, complicating their measurement. The proposed method captures the vertical and lateral variations of suspended-sand concentration throughout a river cross-section. It merges water samples taken at various positions throughout the cross-section with high-resolution acoustic velocity measurements. This is the first method that includes a fully applicable uncertainty estimation; it can easily be applied to any other study sites.
Dominic T. Robson and Andreas C. W. Baas
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 1205–1226, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-1205-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-1205-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Barchans are fast-moving sand dunes which form large populations (swarms) on Earth and Mars. We show that a small range of model parameters produces swarms in which dune size does not vary downwind – something that is observed in nature but not when using earlier models. We also show how the shape of dunes and the spatial patterns they form are affected by wind direction. This work furthers our understanding of the interplay between environmental drivers, dune interactions, and swarm properties.
Jeffrey Keck, Erkan Istanbulluoglu, Benjamin Campforts, Gregory Tucker, and Alexander Horner-Devine
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 1165–1191, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-1165-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-1165-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
MassWastingRunout (MWR) is a new landslide runout model designed for sediment transport, landscape evolution, and hazard assessment applications. MWR is written in Python and includes a calibration utility that automatically determines best-fit parameters for a site and empirical probability density functions of each parameter for probabilistic model implementation. MWR and Jupyter Notebook tutorials are available as part of the Landlab package at https://github.com/landlab/landlab.
Ariane Mueting and Bodo Bookhagen
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 1121–1143, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-1121-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-1121-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study investigates the use of optical PlanetScope data for offset tracking of the Earth's surface movement. We found that co-registration accuracy is locally degraded when outdated elevation models are used for orthorectification. To mitigate this bias, we propose to only correlate scenes acquired from common perspectives or base orthorectification on more up-to-date elevation models generated from PlanetScope data alone. This enables a more detailed analysis of landslide dynamics.
Cho-Hee Lee, Yeong Bae Seong, John Weber, Sangmin Ha, Dong-Eun Kim, and Byung Yong Yu
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 1091–1120, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-1091-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-1091-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Topographic metrics were used to understand changes due to tectonic activity. We evaluated the relative tectonic activity along the Ulsan Fault Zone (UFZ), one of the most active fault zones in South Korea. We divided the UFZ into five segments, based on the spatial variation in activity. We modeled the landscape evolution of the study area and interpreted tectono-geomorphic history during which the northern part of the UFZ experienced asymmetric uplift, while the southern part did not.
Viktoria Kosmalla, Oliver Lojek, Jana Carus, Kara Keimer, Lukas Ahrenbeck, Björn Mehrtens, David Schürenkamp, Boris Schröder, and Nils Goseberg
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2688, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2688, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study analysed seasonal biomechanical traits of marram grass at two coastal dune sites using monthly field and lab data acquired 2022. Differences in density, leaf length, and flower stems were observed, which are unaffected by wind and deemed transferable. These findings enable surrogate model development for numerical and physical experiments alike, where live vegetation is impractical. Results address the knowledge gap how dune stability and erosion resistance are affected by vegetation.
Juditha Aga, Livia Piermattei, Luc Girod, Kristoffer Aalstad, Trond Eiken, Andreas Kääb, and Sebastian Westermann
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 1049–1070, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-1049-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-1049-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Coastal rock cliffs on Svalbard are considered to be fairly stable; however, long-term trends in coastal-retreat rates remain unknown. This study examines changes in the coastline position along Brøggerhalvøya, Svalbard, using aerial images from 1970, 1990, 2010, and 2021. Our analysis shows that coastal-retreat rates accelerate during the period 2010–2021, which coincides with increasing storminess and retreating sea ice.
Aaron T. Steelquist, Gustav B. Seixas, Mary L. Gillam, Sourav Saha, Seulgi Moon, and George E. Hilley
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 1071–1089, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-1071-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-1071-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The rates at which rivers erode their bed can be used to interpret the geologic history of a region. However, these rates depend significantly on the time window over which you measure. We use multiple dating methods to determine an incision rate for the San Juan River and compare it to regional rates with longer timescales. We demonstrate how specific geologic events, such as cutoffs of bedrock meander bends, are likely to preserve material we can date but also bias the rates we measure.
Jingqiu Huang and Hugh D. Sinclair
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2600, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2600, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study uses radar technology to track tiny changes in riverbeds elevation in Himalayan Rivers as they flow onto the Gangetic Plains. By analyzing data from 2016 to 2021, we found that sediment builds up in seasonally dry (ephemeral) rivers during monsoon seasons, while the surrounding floodplains is sinking. This research is important for understanding how these elevation changes affect flood risks in rapidly growing communities in Nepal and India. Our findings can improve flood management.
Mirjam Schaller, Daniel Peifer, Alexander B. Neely, Thomas Bernard, Christoph Glotzbach, Alexander R. Beer, and Todd A. Ehlers
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2729, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2729, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study reports chemical weathering, physical erosion, and total denudation rates from river load data in the Swabian Alb, Southwest Germany. Tributaries to the Neckar River draining to the North show higher rates than tributaries draining to the South into the Danube River causing a retreat of the Swabian Alb escarpment. Observations are discussed in the light of lithology, climate, and topography. The data are further compared to other rates over space and time as well as to global data.
Riccardo Bonomelli, Marco Pilotti, and Gabriele Farina
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2267, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2267, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Debris flows are fundamental components of the hazard in mountain regions and numerical models must be used for the related risk computation. Most existing commercial software strongly conceptualizes the main characteristics of the flow, leading to an inevitable calibration process, that is time-consuming and difficult to accomplish. This contribution offers some physically based solutions to confine the calibration process and to better understand the implications of the selected choice.
Johannes Leinauer, Michael Dietze, Sibylle Knapp, Riccardo Scandroglio, Maximilian Jokel, and Michael Krautblatter
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 1027–1048, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-1027-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-1027-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Massive rock slope failures are a significant alpine hazard and change the Earth's surface. Therefore, we must understand what controls the preparation of such events. By correlating 4 years of slope displacements with meteorological and seismic data, we found that water from rain and snowmelt is the most important driver. Our approach is applicable to similar sites and indicates where future climatic changes, e.g. in rain intensity and frequency, may alter the preparation of slope failure.
Julien Coatléven and Benoit Chauveau
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 995–1026, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-995-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-995-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The aim of this paper is to explain how to incorporate classical water flow routines into landscape evolution models while keeping numerical errors under control. The key idea is to adapt filtering strategies to eliminate anomalous numerical errors and mesh dependencies, as confirmed by convergence tests with analytic solutions. The emergence of complex geomorphic structures is now driven exclusively by nonlinear heterogeneous physical processes rather than by random numerical artifacts.
Jingjuan Li, John D. Jansen, Xuanmei Fan, Zhiyong Ding, Shugang Kang, and Marco Lovati
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 953–971, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-953-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-953-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
In this study, we investigated the geomorphology, sedimentology, and chronology of Tuanjie (seven terraces) and Taiping (three terraces) terraces in Diexi, eastern Tibetan Plateau. Results highlight that two damming and three outburst events occurred in the area during the late Pleistocene, and the outburst floods have been a major factor in the formation of tectonically active mountainous river terraces. Tectonic activity and climatic changes play a minor role.
Hanne Hendrickx, Xabier Blanch, Melanie Elias, Reynald Delaloye, and Anette Eltner
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2570, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2570, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study introduces a novel AI-based method to track and analyse the movement of rock glaciers and landslides, key indicators of permafrost dynamics in high mountain regions. Using time-lapse images, our approach provides detailed velocity data, revealing patterns that traditional methods miss. This cost-effective tool enhances our ability to monitor geohazards, offering insights into climate change impacts on permafrost and improving safety in alpine areas.
Andrew Hollyday, Maureen E. Raymo, Jacqueline Austermann, Fred Richards, Mark Hoggard, and Alessio Rovere
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 883–905, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-883-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-883-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Sea level was significantly higher during the Pliocene epoch, around 3 million years ago. The present-day elevations of shorelines that formed in the past provide a data constraint on the extent of ice sheet melt and the global sea level response under warm Pliocene conditions. In this study, we identify 10 escarpments that formed from wave-cut erosion during Pliocene times and compare their elevations with model predictions of solid Earth deformation processes to estimate past sea level.
Gregory A. Ruetenik, Ken L. Ferrier, and Odin Marc
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 863–881, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-863-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-863-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Fluvial sediment fluxes increased dramatically in Taiwan during Typhoon Morakot in 2009, which produced some of the heaviest landsliding on record. We analyzed fluvial discharge and suspended sediment concentration data at 87 gauging stations across Taiwan to quantify fluvial sediment responses since Morakot. In basins heavily impacted by landsliding, rating curve coefficients sharply increased during Morakot and then declined exponentially with a characteristic decay time of <10 years.
Nil Carrion-Bertran, Albert Falqués, Francesca Ribas, Daniel Calvete, Rinse de Swart, Ruth Durán, Candela Marco-Peretó, Marta Marcos, Angel Amores, Tim Toomey, Àngels Fernández-Mora, and Jorge Guillén
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 819–839, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-819-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-819-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The sensitivity to the wave and sea-level forcing sources in predicting a 6-month embayed beach evolution is assessed using two different morphodynamic models. After a successful model calibration using in situ data, other sources are applied. The wave source choice is critical: hindcast data provide wrong results due to an angle bias, whilst the correct dynamics are recovered with the wave conditions from an offshore buoy. The use of different sea-level sources gives no significant differences.
Thomas J. Barnes, Thomas V. Schuler, Simon Filhol, and Karianne S. Lilleøren
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 801–818, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-801-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-801-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
In this paper, we use machine learning to automatically outline landforms based on their characteristics. We test several methods to identify the most accurate and then proceed to develop the most accurate to improve its accuracy further. We manage to outline landforms with 65 %–75 % accuracy, at a resolution of 10 m, thanks to high-quality/high-resolution elevation data. We find that it is possible to run this method at a country scale to quickly produce landform inventories for future studies.
Eric Petersen, Regine Hock, and Michael G. Loso
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 727–745, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-727-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-727-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Ice cliffs are melt hot spots that increase melt rates on debris-covered glaciers which otherwise see a reduction in melt rates. In this study, we show how surface runoff streams contribute to the generation, evolution, and survival of ice cliffs by carving into the glacier and transporting rocky debris. On Kennicott Glacier, Alaska, 33 % of ice cliffs are actively influenced by streams, while nearly half are within 10 m of streams.
Daniel O'Hara, Liran Goren, Roos M. J. van Wees, Benjamin Campforts, Pablo Grosse, Pierre Lahitte, Gabor Kereszturi, and Matthieu Kervyn
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 709–726, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-709-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-709-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Understanding how volcanic edifices develop drainage basins remains unexplored in landscape evolution. Using digital evolution models of volcanoes with varying ages, we quantify the geometries of their edifices and associated drainage basins through time. We find that these metrics correlate with edifice age and are thus useful indicators of a volcano’s history. We then develop a generalized model for how volcano basins develop and compare our results to basin evolution in other settings.
Brayden Noh, Omar Wani, Kieran B. J. Dunne, and Michael P. Lamb
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 691–708, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-691-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-691-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
In this paper, we propose a framework for generating risk maps that provide the probabilities of erosion due to river migration. This framework uses concepts from probability theory to learn the river migration model's parameter values from satellite data while taking into account parameter uncertainty. Our analysis shows that such geomorphic risk estimation is more reliable than models that do not explicitly consider various sources of variability and uncertainty.
Steven Y. J. Lai, David Amblas, Aaron Micallef, and Hervé Capart
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 621–640, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-621-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-621-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study explores the creation of submarine canyons and hanging-wall fans on active faults, which can be defined by gravity-dominated breaching and underflow-dominated diffusion processes. The study reveals the self-similarity in canyon–fan long profiles, uncovers Hack’s scaling relationship and proposes a formula to estimate fan volume using canyon length. This is validated by global data from source-to-sink systems, providing insights into deep-water sedimentary processes.
Anuska Narayanan, Sagy Cohen, and John R. Gardner
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 581–599, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-581-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-581-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study investigates the profound impact of deforestation in the Amazon on sediment dynamics. Novel remote sensing data and statistical analyses reveal significant changes, especially in heavily deforested regions, with rapid effects within a year. In less disturbed areas, a 1- to 2-year lag occurs, influenced by natural sediment shifts and human activities. These findings highlight the need to understand the consequences of human activity for our planet's future.
Cited articles
Allard, T., Gautheron, C., Riffel, S. B., Balan, E., Soares, B. F., Pinna-Jamme, R., Derycke, A., Morin, G., Bueno, G. T., and Nascimento, N. D.: Combined dating of goethites and kaolinites from ferruginous duricrusts. Deciphering the Late Neogene erosion history of Central Amazonia, Chem. Geol., 479, 136–150, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2018.01.004, 2018. a, b
Alonso-Zarza, A. and Wright, V.: Chapter 5 Calcretes, Developments in Sedimentology, 61, 225–267, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0070-4571(09)06105-6, 2010. a, b, c, d
Alonso-Zarza, A. M.: Palaeoenvironmental significance of palustrine carbonates and calcretes in the geological record, Earth-Sci. Rev., 60, 261–298, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0012-8252(02)00106-x, 2003. a, b, c, d
Alonso-Zarza, A. M., Tanner, L. H., Azañón, J. M., Tuccimei, P., Azor, A., Sánchez-Almazo, I. M., Alonso-Zarza, A. M., Soligo, M., and Pérez-Peña, J. V.: Paleoenvironmental Record and Applications of Calcretes and Palustrine Carbonates, Geological Society of America, https://doi.org/10.1130/2006.2416(14), 2006. a
Azmon, E. and Kedar, Y.: Lower cretaceous silcrete-ferricrete, at the northern end of the African Tethys shoreline, Maktesh Gadol, Israel, Sediment. Geol., 43, 261–276, https://doi.org/10.1016/0037-0738(85)90059-4, 1985. a
Balugani, E., Lubczynski, M., Reyes-Acosta, L., Tol, C. v. d., Francés, A., and Metselaar, K.: Groundwater and unsaturated zone evaporation and transpiration in a semi-arid open woodland, J. Hydrol., 547, 54–66, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2017.01.042, 2017. a, b
Beauvais, A.: Ferricrete biochemical degradation on the rainforest–savannas boundary of Central African Republic, Geoderma, 150, 379–388, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2009.02.023, 2009. a
Beauvais, A., Ruffet, G., Hénocque, O., and Colin, F.: Chemical and physical erosion rhythms of the West African Cenozoic morphogenesis: The 39Ar‐40Ar dating of supergene K‐Mn oxides, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 113, F04007, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008jf000996, 2008. a
Bhuiyan, C.: Hydrogeological factors: their association and relationship with seasonal water-table fluctuation in the composite hardrock Aravalli terrain, India, Environ. Earth Sci., 60, 733–748, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-009-0211-5, 2010. a, b, c, d
Bierman, P. R., Coppersmith, R., Hanson, K., Neveling, J., Portenga, E. W., and Rood, D. H.: A cosmogenic view of erosion, relief generation, and the age of faulting in southern Africa, GSA Today, 24, 4–11, https://doi.org/10.1130/gsatg206a.1, 2014. a
Bonsor, H. C., MacDonald, A. M., and Davies, J.: Evidence for extreme variations in the permeability of laterite from a detailed analysis of well behaviour in Nigeria, Hydrol. Process., 28, 3563–3573, https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.9871, 2014. a
Borger, H.: Mikromorphologie und Paläoenvironment: die Mineralverwitterung als Zeugnis der cretazisch-tertiären Umwelt in Süddeutschland, vol. 15, Gebrüder Borntraeger, ISBN 9783443090159, 2000. a
Boulangé, B.: Les formations bauxitiques latéritiques de Côte d'Ivoire: les faciès, leur transformation, leur distribution et l'évolution du modèle, Travaux et Documents de l'ORSTOM, ORSTOM, Paris, ISBN 2-7099-0715-1, https://www.documentation.ird.fr/hor/fdi:15338 (last access: 18 July 2024), 1984. a, b, c, d, e, f
Boulangé, B., Ambrosi, J.-P., and Nahon, D.: Laterites and Bauxites, in: Soils and Sediments Mineralogy and Geochemestry, Springer, vol. 1, p. 369, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-60525-3_3, ISBN 978-3-642-64443-6, 1997. a, b, c, d
Bourman, R.: Field relationships of ferricretes and weathered zones in southern South Australia: a contribution to 'laterite' studies in Australia, Soil Res., 23, 441–465, https://doi.org/10.1071/sr9850441, 1985. a
Bourman, R. P., Buckman, S., Chivas, A. R., Ollier, C. D., and Price, D. M.: Ferricretes at Burringurrah (Mount Augustus), Western Australia: Proof of lateral derivation, Geomorphology, 354, 107017, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2019.107017, 2020. a
Bovy, B., McBain, G. D., Gailleton, B., and Lange, R.: benbovy/xarray-simlab: 0.5.0, Zenodo [code], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4469813, 2021. a
Brantley, S. L. and White, A. F.: Approaches to Modeling Weathered Regolith, Rev. Mineral. Geochem., 70, 435–484, https://doi.org/10.2138/rmg.2009.70.10, 2009. a
Brantley, S. L., Lebedeva, M. I., Balashov, V. N., Singha, K., Sullivan, P. L., and Stinchcomb, G.: Toward a conceptual model relating chemical reaction fronts to water flow paths in hills, Geomorphology, 277, 100–117, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2016.09.027, 2017. a
Braun, J., Guillocheau, F., and Robin, C.: Reply to Comment on “A simple model for regolith formation by chemical weathering” by Braun et al. Contradictory concentrations and a tale of two velocities by Harman et al., J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 122, 2037–2039, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017jf004271, 2017. a
Brown, K. S., Marean, C. W., Herries, A. I. R., Jacobs, Z., Tribolo, C., Braun, D., Roberts, D. L., Meyer, M. C., and Bernatchez, J.: Fire As an Engineering Tool of Early Modern Humans, Science, 325, 859–862, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1175028, 2009. a
Buchanan, F.: A Journey from Madras through the Countries of Mysore, Canara, and Malabar, vol. 3, Cadell, https://doi.org/10.11588/diglit.2375, 1807. a
Bustillo, M. A., Plet, C., and Alonso-Zarza, A. M.: Root Calcretes and Uranium-Bearing Silcretes At Sedimentary Discontinuities In the Miocene of the Madrid Basin (Toledo, Spain), J. Sediment. Res., 83, 1130–1146, https://doi.org/10.2110/jsr.2013.85, 2013. a, b
Butt, C. and Bristow, A.: Relief inversion in the geomorphological evolution of sub-Saharan West Africa, Geomorphology, 185, 16–26, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2012.11.024, 2013. a
Butt, C. R. M.: Granite weathering and silcrete formation on the Yilgarn Block, Western Australia, Aust. J. Earth Sci., 32, 415–432, https://doi.org/10.1080/08120098508729341, 1985. a
Campforts, B. and Govers, G.: Keeping the edge: A numerical method that avoids knickpoint smearing when solving the stream power law, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 120, 1189–1205, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014jf003376, 2015. a
Campos, D. S. D., Monteiro, H. S., Vasconcelos, P. M., Farley, K. A., Silva, A. C., and Vidal‐Torrado, P.: A new model of bauxitization in quartzitic landscapes: A case study from the Southern Espinhaço Range (Brazil), Earth Surface Proc. Land., 48, 2788–2807, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.5660, 2023. a, b, c
Candy, I., Black, S., and Sellwood, B.: Quantifying time scales of pedogenic calcrete formation using U-series disequilibria, Sediment. Geol., 170, 177–187, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2004.07.003, 2003. a, b, c
Chandra, S., Singh, P. K., Tiwari, A. K., Panigrahy, B. P., and Kumar, A.: Evaluation of hydrogeological factors and their relationship with seasonal water table fluctuation in Dhanbad district, Jharkhand, India, J. Hydraul. Eng., 21, 193–206, https://doi.org/10.1080/09715010.2014.1002542, 2015. a, b, c, d, e, f
Chardon, D.: Landform-regolith patterns of Northwestern Africa: Deciphering Cenozoic surface dynamics of the tropical cratonic geosystem, Earth-Sci. Rev., 242, 104452, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2023.104452, 2023. a, b
Chen, C.-H., Liu, K.-K., and Shieh, Y.-N.: Geochemical and isotopic studies of bauxitization in the Tatun volcanic area, northern Taiwan, Chem. Geol., 68, 41–56, https://doi.org/10.1016/0009-2541(88)90085-x, 1988. a, b
Chivas, A. R. and Atlhopheng, J. R.: Oxygen-isotope dating the Yilgarn regolith, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 346, 309–320, https://doi.org/10.1144/sp346.16, 2010. a
Chudasama, B., Porwal, A., González-Álvarez, I., Thakur, S., Wilde, A., and Kreuzer, O. P.: Calcrete-hosted surficial uranium systems in Western Australia: Prospectivity modeling and quantitative estimates of resources. Part 1 – Origin of calcrete uranium deposits in surficial environments: A review, Ore Geol. Rev., 102, 906–936, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2018.04.024, 2018. a, b
Chudasama, B., Porwal, A., Wilde, A., González-Álvarez, I., Aranha, M., Akarapu, U., Hirsch, M., and Becker, E.: Bedrock topography modeling and calcrete-uranium prospectivity analysis of Central Erongo Region, Namibia, Ore Geol. Rev., 114, 103109, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2019.103109, 2019. a
Colin, F., Beauvais, A., Ruffet, G., and Hénocque, O.: First 40Ar
Deng, Y., Li, H., Wang, Y., Duan, Y., and Gan, Y.: Temporal Variability of Groundwater Chemistry and Relationship with Water-table Fluctuation in the Jianghan Plain, Central China, Proced. Earth Plan. Sc., 10, 100–103, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeps.2014.08.018, 2014. a, b, c
Dhir, R., Singhvi, A., Andrews, J., Kar, A., Sareen, B., Tandon, S., Kailath, A., and Thomas, J.: Multiple episodes of aggradation and calcrete formation in Late Quaternary aeolian sands, Central Thar Desert, Rajasthan, India, J. Asian Earth Sci., 37, 10–16, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2009.07.002, 2010. a, b, c
dos Santos Albuquerque, M. F., Horbe, A. M. C., and Danišík, M.: Episodic weathering in Southwestern Amazonia based on (UTh)
Ely, D. M. and Kahle, S. C.: Simulation of groundwater and surface-water resources and evaluation of water-management alternatives for the Chamokane Creek basin, Stevens County, Washington, Tech. Rep. 2012-5224, USGS, https://doi.org/10.3133/sir20125224, 2012. a
Eren, M., Kadir, S., Hatipoğlu, Z., and Gül, M.: Quaternary Calcrete Development in the Mersin Area, Southern Turkey, Turkish J. Earth Sci., 17, 763–784, 2008. a
Fenske, C.: CarolineFenske/Duricrusts: Initial Release (v1.0), Zenodo [code], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10523101, 2024a. a
Fenske, C.: S1 – Supplementary material for article “A numerical model for duricrust formation by water table fluctuations”, TIB AV-Portal [video], https://doi.org/10.5446/69377, 2024b. a
Fenske, C.: “A Numerical Model for Duricrust Formation by Water Table Fluctuations” Datasets, OSF [data set], https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/RNYH4, 2025. a
Ferrier, K. L. and Kirchner, J. W.: Effects of physical erosion on chemical denudation rates: A numerical modeling study of soil-mantled hillslopes, Earth Planet. Sc. Lett., 272, 591–599, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2008.05.024, 2008. a
Firman, J.: Paleosols in laterite and silcrete profiles Evidence from the South East Margin of the Australian Precambrian Shield, Earth-Sci. Rev., 36, 149–179, https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-8252(94)90056-6, 1993. a, b, c, d
Fritz, B. and Tardy, Y.: Etude thermodynamique du système gibbsite, quartz, kaolinite, gaz carbonique. Application à la genèse des podzols et des bauxites, Sciences Géologiques. Bulletin, 26, 339–367, https://doi.org/10.3406/sgeol.1973.1438, 1973. a, b
Fujioka, T., Chappell, J., Honda, M., Yatsevich, I., Fifield, K., and Fabel, D.: Global cooling initiated stony deserts in central Australia 2–4 Ma, dated by cosmogenic 21Ne-10Be, Geology, 33, 993–996, https://doi.org/10.1130/g21746.1, 2005. a
Fujioka, T., Fifield, L., Stone, J., Vasconcelos, P., Tims, S., and Chappell, J.: In situ cosmogenic 53Mn production rate from ancient low-denudation surface in tropic Brazil, Nucl. Instrum. Meth. B, 268, 1209–1213, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nimb.2009.10.135, 2010. a
Gilkes, B., Lee, S., and Singh, B.: The imprinting of aridity upon a lateritic landscape: an illustration from southwestern Australia, C. R. Geosci., 335, 1207–1218, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crte.2003.10.003, 2003. a
Girard, J.-P., Freyssinet, P., and Morillon, A.-C.: Oxygen isotope study of Cayenne duricrust paleosurfaces: implications for past climate and laterization processes over French Guiana, Chem. Geol., 191, 329–343, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0009-2541(02)00130-4, 2002. a
Goudie, A.: Duricrusts in Tropical and Subtropical Landscapes, Clay Miner., 10, 131–131, https://doi.org/10.1180/claymin.1973.010.2.08, 1973. a, b, c, d
Grant, K. and Aitchison, G.: The engineering significance of silcretes and ferricretes in Australia, Eng. Geol., 4, 93–120, https://doi.org/10.1016/0013-7952(70)90007-4, 1970. a
Guinoiseau, D., Fekiacova, Z., Allard, T., Druhan, J. L., Balan, E., and Bouchez, J.: Tropical Weathering History Recorded in the Silicon Isotopes of Lateritic Weathering Profiles, Geophys. Res. Lett., 48, e2021GL092957, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021gl092957, 2021. a
Hall, S., Gosen, B. V., Paces, J., Zielinski, R., and Breit, G.: Calcrete uranium deposits in the Southern High Plains, USA, Ore Geol. Rev., 109, 50–78, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2019.03.036, 2019. a, b
Hassan, S. T., Lubczynski, M. W., Niswonger, R. G., and Su, Z.: Surface–groundwater interactions in hard rocks in Sardon Catchment of western Spain: An integrated modeling approach, J. Hydrol., 517, 390–410, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.05.026, 2014. a, b, c, d
Heller, B. M., Riffel, S. B., Allard, T., Morin, G., Roig, J.-Y., Couëffé, R., Aertgeerts, G., Derycke, A., Ansart, C., Pinna-Jamme, R., and Gautheron, C.: Reading the climate signals hidden in bauxite, Geochim. Cosmochim. Ac., 323, 40–73, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2022.02.017, 2022. a, b, c, d, e
Hénocque, O., Ruffet, G., Colin, F., and Féraud, G.: 40Ar
Horbe, A. M. C. and Anand, R.: Bauxite on igneous rocks from Amazonia and Southwestern of Australia: Implication for weathering process, J. Geochem. Explor., 111, 1–12, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2011.06.003, 2011. a, b, c
Hunt, P., Mitchell, P., and Paton, T.: “Laterite profiles” and “lateritic ironstones” on the hawkesbury sandstone, Australia, Geoderma, 19, 105–121, https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7061(77)90019-2, 1977. a
Kelly, M., Black, S., and Rowan, J.: A calcrete-based U
Khalaf, F. I.: Occurrences and genesis of calcrete and dolocrete in the Mio-Pleistocene fluviatile sequence in Kuwait, northeast Arabian Peninsula, Sediment. Geol., 199, 129–139, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2007.01.021, 2007. a
Khalifa, M., Kumon, F., and Yoshida, K.: Calcareous duricrust, Al Qasim Province, Saudi Arabia: Occurrence and origin, Quatern. Int., 209, 163–174, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2009.02.014, 2009. a
Král, V.: Silcretes and Their Relationship to Planation Surfaces in Western Bohemia, Geografie, 81, 19–22, https://doi.org/10.37040/geografie1976081010019, 1976. a, b, c
Küçükuysal, C., Engin, B., Türkmenoğlu, A. G., and Aydaş, C.: ESR dating of calcrete nodules from Bala, Ankara (Turkey): Preliminary results, Appl. Radiat. Isotopes, 69, 492–499, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apradiso.2010.10.005, 2011. a, b, c
Kuruppath, N., Raviraj, A., Kannan, B., and Sellamuthu, K. M.: Estimation of Groundwater Recharge Using Water Table Fluctuation Method, International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 7, 3404–3412, https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2018.710.395, 2018. a, b, c, d
Lebedeva, M. and Brantley, S.: A clarification and extension of our model of regolith formation on hillslopes, Earth Surface Proc. Land., 43, 2715–2723, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.4426, 2018. a
Lebedeva, M., Fletcher, R., Balashov, V., and Brantley, S.: A reactive diffusion model describing transformation of bedrock to saprolite, Chem. Geol., 244, 624–645, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2007.07.008, 2007. a
Lebedeva, M., Fletcher, R., and Brantley, S.: A mathematical model for steady‐state regolith production at constant erosion rate, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 35, 508–524, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.1954, 2010. a, b
Lebedeva, M. I. and Brantley, S. L.: Exploring geochemical controls on weathering and erosion of convex hillslopes: beyond the empirical regolith production function, Earth Surface Proc. Land., 38, 1793–1807, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3424, 2013. a
Leduc, C., Bromley, J., and Schroeter, P.: Water table fluctuation and recharge in semi-arid climate: some results of the HAPEX-Sahel hydrodynamic survey (Niger), J. Hydrol., 188, 123–138, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0022-1694(96)03156-3, 1997. a, b, c
Leer, B. v.: Towards the ultimate conservative difference scheme. II. Monotonicity and conservation combined in a second-order scheme, J. Comput. Phys., 14, 361–370, https://doi.org/10.1016/0021-9991(74)90019-9, 1974. a
Lichtner, P. C. and Biino, G. G.: A first principles approach to supergene enrichment of a porphyry copper protore: I. Cu-Fe-S subsystem, Geochim. Cosmochim. Ac., 56, 3987–4013, https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(92)90012-8, 1992. a, b
Maher, K.: The dependence of chemical weathering rates on fluid residence time, Earth Planet. Sc. Lett., 294, 101–110, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2010.03.010, 2010. a
Maréchal, J., Dewandel, B., Ahmed, S., Galeazzi, L., and Zaidi, F.: Combined estimation of specific yield and natural recharge in a semi-arid groundwater basin with irrigated agriculture, J. Hydrol., 329, 281–293, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2006.02.022, 2006. a
Marques, E. A., Junior, G. C. S., Eger, G. Z., Ilambwetsi, A. M., Raphael, P., Generoso, T. N., Oliveira, J., and Júnior, J. N.: Analysis of groundwater and river stage fluctuations and their relationship with water use and climate variation effects on Alto Grande watershed, Northeastern Brazil, J. S. Am. Earth Sci., 103, 102723, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2020.102723, 2020. a
Mather, C. C., Nash, D. J., Dogramaci, S., Grierson, P. F., and Skrzypek, G.: Geomorphic and hydrological controls on groundwater dolocrete formation in the semi‐arid Hamersley Basin, northwest Australia, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 44, 2752–2770, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.4704, 2019. a
Millot, G.: Geology of Clays: weathering, sedimentology, geochemistry, vol. 1, New York Springer-Verlag, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-41609-9, https://archive.org/details/geologyofclayswe0000unse/page/n5/mode/2up (last access: 18 July 2024), 1970. a, b
Momo, M. N., Beauvais, A., Tematio, P., and Yemefack, M.: Differentiated Neogene bauxitization of volcanic rocks (western Cameroon): Morpho-geological constraints on chemical erosion, CATENA, 194, 104685, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2020.104685, 2020. a, b, c
Monteiro, H., Vasconcelos, P., Farley, K., and Lopes, C.: Age and evolution of diachronous erosion surfaces in the Amazon: Combining (U-Th)
Monteiro, H. S., Vasconcelos, P. M., Farley, K. A., Spier, C. A., and Mello, C. L.: (U-Th)
Moon, S.-K., Woo, N. C., and Lee, K. S.: Statistical analysis of hydrographs and water-table fluctuation to estimate groundwater recharge, J. Hydrol., 292, 198–209, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2003.12.030, 2004. a, b
Moussavi-Harami, R., Mahboubi, A., Nadjafi, M., Brenner, R., and Mortazavi, M.: Mechanism of calcrete formation in the Lower Cretaceous (Neocomian) fluvial deposits, northeastern Iran based on petrographic, geochemical data, Cretaceous Res., 30, 1146–1156, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cretres.2009.04.003, 2009. a, b
Nahon, D. and Bocquier, G.: Petrology of elements transfers in weathering and soil systems, in: Pétrologie des altérations et des sols, Vol. II: Pétrologie des séquences naturelles. Colloque international du CNRS, Paris, France, 4–7 July 1983, Sciences Géologiques, bulletins et mémoires, https://www.persee.fr/doc/sgeol_0302-2684_1983_act_72_1_2016 (last access: 18 July 2024), 1983. a
Nash, D. J.: Arid Zone Geomorphology, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 131–180, https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470710777.ch8, 2011. a, b, c, d
Nash, D. J. and Shaw, P. A.: Silica and carbonate relationships in silcrete-calcrete intergrade duricrusts from the Kalahari of Botswana and Namibia, J. Afr. Earth Sci., 27, 11–25, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0899-5362(98)00043-8, 1998. a
Nash, D. J., Mclaren, S. J., and Webb, J. A.: Petrology, geochemistry and environmental significance of silcrete‐calcrete intergrade duricrusts at Kang Pan and Tswaane, central Kalahari, Botswana, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 29, 1559–1586, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.1138, 2004. a
Netterberg, F.: Ages of Calcretes in Southern Africa, S. Afr. Archaeol. Bull., 24, 88–92, https://doi.org/10.2307/3888283, 1969. a, b
Norton, K. P., Molnar, P., and Schlunegger, F.: The role of climate-driven chemical weathering on soil production, Geomorphology, 204, 510–517, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.08.030, 2014. a
Nygren, M., Giese, M., Kløve, B., Haaf, E., Rossi, P. M., and Barthel, R.: Changes in seasonality of groundwater level fluctuations in a temperate-cold climate transition zone, J. Hydrol., 8, 100062, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydroa.2020.100062, 2020. a, b, c
Ollier, C. and Galloway, R.: The laterite profile, ferricrete and unconformity, CATENA, 17, 97–109, https://doi.org/10.1016/0341-8162(90)90001-t, 1990. a, b, c
Ollier, C. D. and Sheth, H. C.: The High Deccan duricrusts of India and their significance for the `laterite' issue, J. Earth Syst. Sci., 117, 537–551, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12040-008-0051-9, 2008. a
Paton, T. R. and Williams, M. A. J.: The Concept of Laterite, Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr., 62, 42–56, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8306.1972.tb00842.x, 1972. a
Paz, A., Gagen, E. J., Levett, A., Zhao, Y., Kopittke, P. M., and Southam, G.: Biogeochemical cycling of iron oxides in the rhizosphere of plants grown on ferruginous duricrust (canga), Sci. Total Environ., 713, 136637, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.136637, 2020. a
Paz, A., Gagen, E. J., Levett, A., and Southam, G.: Ferrugination of biocrusts grown on crushed ferricrete: Potential for slope stabilisation, Ore Geol. Rev., 135, 104239, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2021.104239, 2021. a
Pelletier, J. D.: How do pediments form?: A numerical modeling investigation with comparison to pediments in southern Arizona, USA, GSA Bull., 122, 1815–1829, https://doi.org/10.1130/b30128.1, 2010. a, b
Pelletier, J. D., Broxton, P. D., Hazenberg, P., Zeng, X., Troch, P. A., Niu, G., Williams, Z., Brunke, M. A., and Gochis, D.: A gridded global data set of soil, intact regolith, and sedimentary deposit thicknesses for regional and global land surface modeling, J. Adv. Model. Earth Sy., 8, 41–65, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015ms000526, 2016. a
Pérez-Peña, J. V., Azañón, J. M., Azor, A., Tuccimei, P., Seta, M. D., and Soligo, M.: Quaternary landscape evolution and erosion rates for an intramontane Neogene basin (Guadix–Baza basin, SE Spain), Geomorphology, 106, 206–218, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2008.10.018, 2009. a
Phillips, J. D.: Rapid Development of Ferricretes on a Subtropical Valley Side Slope, Geogr. Ann. A, 82, 69–78, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0435-3676.2000.00113.x, 2000. a
Radtke, U. and Brückner, H.: Investigation on age and genesis of silcretes in Queensland (Australia) – Preliminary results, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 16, 547–554, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3290160606, 1991. a, b
Radtke, U., Brückner, H., Mangini, A., and Hausmann, R.: Problems encountered with absolute dating (U-series, ESR) of Spanish calcretes, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 7, 439–445, https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-3791(88)90043-1, 1988. a, b, c
Rempe, D. M. and Dietrich, W. E.: A bottom-up control on fresh-bedrock topography under landscapes, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 111, 6576–6581, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1404763111, 2014. a, b
Retallack, G. J.: Soils of the Past, Blackwell Science, USA, https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470698716, ISBN 9780470698716, 2001. a
Retallack, G. J.: Lateritization and Bauxitization Events, Econ. Geol., 105, 655–667, https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.105.3.655, 2010. a, b
Ricordel‐Prognon, C., Lagroix, F., Moreau, M., and Thiry, M.: Lateritic paleoweathering profiles in French Massif Central: Paleomagnetic datings, J. Geophys. Res.-Sol. Ea., 115, B10104, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010jb007419, 2010. a
Riffel, S. B., Vasconcelos, P. M., Carmo, I. O., and Farley, K. A.: Goethite (U-Th)
Ritter, B., Albert, R., Rakipov, A., Van der Wateren, F. M., Dunai, T. J., and Gerdes, A.: Late Neogene terrestrial climate reconstruction of the central Namib Desert derived by the combination of U–Pb silcrete and terrestrial cosmogenic nuclide exposure dating, Geochronology, 5, 433–450, https://doi.org/10.5194/gchron-5-433-2023, 2023. a, b
Rozefelds, A. C., Webb, J., Carpenter, R. J., Milroy, A. K., and Hill, R. S.: Born of fire, borne by water – Review of paleo-environmental conditions, floristic assemblages and modes of preservation as evidence of distinct silicification pathways for silcrete floras in Australia, Gondwana Res., 130, 234–249, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2024.02.001, 2024. a
Sacek, V., Neto, J. M. M., Vasconcelos, P. M., and Carmo, I. O.: Numerical Modeling of Weathering, Erosion, Sedimentation, and Uplift in a Triple Junction Divergent Margin, Geochem. Geophy. Geosy., 20, 2334–2354, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018gc008124, 2019. a, b
Schwarz, T.: Lateritic bauxite in central Germany and implications for Miocene palaeoclimate, Palaeogeogr. Palaeocl., 129, 37–50, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0031-0182(96)00065-x, 1997. a
Shuster, D. L., Farley, K. A., Vasconcelos, P. M., Balco, G., Monteiro, H. S., Waltenberg, K., and Stone, J. O.: Cosmogenic 3He in hematite and goethite from Brazilian “canga” duricrust demonstrates the extreme stability of these surfaces, Earth Planet. Sc. Lett., 329, 41–50, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2012.02.017, 2012. a
Soler, J. M. and Lasaga, A. C.: A mass transfer model of bauxite formation, Geochim. Cosmochim. Ac., 60, 4913–4931, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0016-7037(96)00319-5, 1996. a, b
Spier, C. A., Vasconcelos, P. M., and Oliviera, S. M.: 40Ar
Sreedevi, P. D., Ahmed, S., Made, B., Ledoux, E., and Gandolfi, J. M.: Association of hydrogeological factors in temporal variations of fluoride concentration in a crystalline aquifer in India, Environ. Geol., 50, 1–11, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-005-0167-z, 2006. a, b, c
Staunton, S. and Fairbridge, R. W.: Duricrusts and Induration, Springer, 192–198, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-3995-9_168, 2008. a
Stephens, C.: Laterite and silcrete in Australia: A study of the genetic relationships of laterite and silcrete and their companion materials, and their collective significance in the formation of the weathered mantle, soils, relief and drainage of the australian continent, Geoderma, 5, 5–52, https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7061(71)90023-1, 1970. a, b
Strasser, M., Strasser, A., Pelz, K., and Seyfried, H.: A mid Miocene to early Pleistocene multi-level cave as a gauge for tectonic uplift of the Swabian Alb (Southwest Germany), Geomorphology, 106, 130–141, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2008.09.012, 2009. a
Struck, M., Jansen, J. D., Fujioka, T., Codilean, A. T., Fink, D., Fülöp, R.-H., Wilcken, K. M., Price, D. M., Kotevski, S., Fifield, L. K., and Chappell, J.: Tracking the 10Be–26Al source-area signal in sediment-routing systems of arid central Australia, Earth Surf. Dynam., 6, 329–349, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-6-329-2018, 2018. a
Tardy, Y.: Silice, silicates magnésiens, silicates sodiques et géochimie des paysages arides, B. Soc. Géol. Fr., XXIII, 325–334, 1981. a
Tardy, Y.: Cuirasses latéritiques et minéralisations aurifères de la région de Kangaba au Mali., Cartographie, minéralogie, géochimie et télédetection, ORSTOM, DNGM, CNRS, rapport de Première Phase, IRD no. fdi:29793, 1986. a
Tardy, Y., Bardossy, G., and Nahon, D.: Fluctuations de l'activité de l'eau et succesions de minéraux hydratés et déshydratés au sein des profils latéritiques ferrugineux et bauxitiques, C. R. Académie des Sciences de Paris, 307, 753–759, 1988. a
Tardy, Y., Kobilsek, B., and Paquet, H.: Mineralogical composition and geographical distribution of African and Brazilian periatlantic laterites. The influence of continental drift and tropical paleoclimates during the past 150 million years and implications for India and Australia, J. Afr. Earth Sci., 12, 283–295, https://doi.org/10.1016/0899-5362(91)90077-c, 1991. a, b, c, d
Taylor, G. and Eggleton, R. A.: Regolith Geology and Geomorphology, Wiley, 1st edn., ISBN 978-0-471-97454-3, https://www.wiley.com/en-fr/Regolith+Geology+and+Geomorphology-p-9780471974543 (last access: 18 July 2024), 2001. a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z, aa, ab, ac, ad, ae, af, ag, ah, ai, aj, ak, al, am, an, ao, ap
Temgoua, E., Tchapnga, H. D., Tanawa, E., Guenat, C., and Pfeifer, H.: Groundwater fluctuations and footslope ferricrete soils in the humid tropical zone of southern Cameroon, Hydrol. Process., 19, 3097–3111, https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.5834, 2005. a, b
Théveniaut, H. and Freyssinet, P.: Timing of lateritization on the Guiana Shield: synthesis of paleomagnetic results from French Guiana and Suriname, Palaeogeogr. Palaeocl., 178, 91–117, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0031-0182(01)00404-7, 2002. a
Thiry, M. and Milnes, A.: Silcretes: Insights into the occurrences and formation of materials sourced for stone tool making, J. Archaeol. Sci.: Reports, 15, 500–513, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2016.08.015, 2017. a, b
Ullyott, J. S. and Nash, D. J.: Distinguishing pedogenic and non-pedogenic silcretes in the landscape and geological record, P. Geologist. Assoc., 127, 311–319, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pgeola.2016.03.001, 2016. a, b
Ullyott, J. S., Nash, D. J., and Shaw, P. A.: Recent advances in silcrete research and their implications for the origin and palaeoenvironmental significance of sarsens, P. Geologist. Assoc., 109, 255–270, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0016-7878(98)80019-9, 1998. a
Vasconcelos, P. M. and Conroy, M.: Geochronology of weathering and landscape evolution, Dugald River valley, NW Queensland, Australia, Geochim. Cosmochim. Ac., 67, 2913–2930, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0016-7037(02)01372-8, 2003. a, b, c
Vasconcelos, P. M., Brimhall, G. H., Becker, T. A., and Renne, P. R.: 40Ar39Ar analysis of supergene jarosite and alunite: Implications to the paleoweathering history of the western USA and West Africa, Geochim. Cosmochim. Ac., 58, 401–420, https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(94)90473-1, 1994. a, b
Vogel, J. and Geyh, M.: Radiometric dating of hillslope calcrete in the Negev Desert, Israel, S. Afr. J. Sci., 104, 493–495, https://doi.org/10.1590/s0038-23532008000600025, 2008. a
Wang, Y., Nahon, D., and Merino, E.: Dynamic model of the genesis of calcretes replacing silicate rocks in semi-arid regions, Geochim. Cosmochim. Ac., 58, 5131–5145, https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(94)90299-2, 1993. a
Watson, A.: Desert gypsum crusts as palaeoenvironmental indicators: A micropetrographic study of crusts from southern Tunisia and the central Namib Desert, J. Arid Environ., 15, 19–42, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-1963(18)31002-4, 1988. a, b
Webb, J. A. and Golding, S. D.: Geochemical mass-balance and oxygen-isotope constraints on silcrete formation and its paleoclimatic implications in southern Australia, J. Sediment. Res., 68, 981–993, https://doi.org/10.2110/jsr.68.981, 1998. a, b
Webb, J. A. and Nash, D. J.: Reassessing southern African silcrete geochemistry: implications for silcrete origin and sourcing of silcrete artefacts, Earth Surface Proc. Land., 45, 3396–3413, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.4976, 2020. a, b, c
Wells, M., Danišík, M., McInnes, B., and Morris, P.: (U-Th)
Widdowson, M.: Laterites and Ferricretes, in: Geochemical Sediments and Landscapes, edited by: Nash, D. and McLaren, S. J., Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 45–94, https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470712917.ch3, ISBN 9780470712917, 2007. a, b
Wright, V., Sloan, R., Garcés, B. V., and Garvie, L.: Groundwater ferricretes from the Silurian of Ireland and Permian of the Spanish Pyrenees, Sediment. Geol., 77, 37–49, https://doi.org/10.1016/0037-0738(92)90102-w, 1992. a, b
Wright, V. P.: Estimating rates of calcrete formation and sediment accretion in ancient alluvial deposits, Geol. Mag., 127, 273–276, https://doi.org/10.1017/s0016756800014539, 1989. a, b, c, d
Yijian, C., Jinfen, L., Head, J., Arakel, A., and Jacobson, G.: 14C and ESR dating of calcrete and gypcrete cores from the Amadeus Basin, Northern Territory, Australia, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 7, 447–453, https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-3791(88)90044-3, 1988. a, b
Youngson, J. H.: Diagenetic silcrete and formation of silcrete ventifacts and aeolian gold placers in Central Otago, New Zealand, New Zeal. J. Geol. Geop., 48, 247–263, https://doi.org/10.1080/00288306.2005.9515113, 2005. a
Short summary
We have developed a new numerical model to represent the formation of duricrusts, which are hard mineral layers found in soils and at the surface of the Earth. We assume that the formation mechanism implies variations in the height of the water table and that the hardening rate is proportional to precipitation. The model allows us to quantify the potential feedbacks they generate on the surface topography and the thickness of the regolith/soil layer.
We have developed a new numerical model to represent the formation of duricrusts, which are hard...
