Articles | Volume 14, issue 6
https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-14-865-2026
© Author(s) 2026. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-14-865-2026
© Author(s) 2026. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
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10 Nov 2026
Research article | Highlight paper |
| 10 Nov 2026
| 10 Nov 2026
TopoToolbox 3, a laboratory for quantitative geomorphology
William S. Kearney
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Institute of Environmental Sciences and Geography, University of Potsdam, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
Gina Arnau
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA
Theophil Bringezu
Institute of Computer Science, University of Potsdam, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
Michael Dietze
Institute of Geography, RWTH Aachen, 52062 Aachen, Germany
Boris Gailleton
Université de Rennes, CNRS, Géoscience Rennes – UMR 6118, 35000 Rennes, France
Centre national d'études spatiales (CNES), 75039 Paris, France
Anna-Lena Lamprecht
Institute of Computer Science, University of Potsdam, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
Kilian Lenz
Institute of Environmental Sciences and Geography, University of Potsdam, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
Richard Ott
Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, 1090 GE Amsterdam, the Netherlands
Dirk Scherler
Institute of Geographical Sciences, Freie Universität Berlin, 12249 Berlin, Germany
GFZ Helmholtz Centre for Geosciences, 14473 Potsdam, Germany
Philippe Steer
Université de Rennes, CNRS, Géoscience Rennes – UMR 6118, 35000 Rennes, France
Institut Universitaire de France (IUF), 75000 Paris, France
Wolfgang Schwanghart
Institute of Environmental Sciences and Geography, University of Potsdam, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
Institute of Geographical Sciences, Freie Universität Berlin, 12249 Berlin, Germany
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Philippe Davy, Wolfgang Schwanghart, Jürgen Mey, Caroline Darcel, and Angela Landgraf
Earth Surf. Dynam., 14, 635–651, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-14-635-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-14-635-2026, 2026
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The impact of sediment grains on the riverbed is a key driver of bedrock erosion yet is rarely included in studies of landscape evolution. We propose an equation to address this issue by considering the distinction between grain lift and grain impact. We solved and analysed these equations for simple cases, such as the downstream evolution of a riverbed, and implemented them in a numerical code that simulated the retreat of a knickpoint.
David Puhl, Jens M. Turowski, Christoff Andermann, Michael Dietze, Kristen L. Cook, Gen K. Li, and Basanta R. Adhikari
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-4202, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-4202, 2026
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Large earthquakes trigger widespread landslides that increase the amount of sediment delivered to rivers. We studied suspended sediment grain sizes in a major Himalayan river basin following the 2015 Gorkha Earthquake in Nepal. We found coarser suspended sediments near heavily affected areas during the first year after the earthquake, with the signal disappearing downstream. These findings improve our understanding of how far and for how long earthquakes influence river sediment transport.
Philippe Steer, Lucas Pelascini, and Laurent Longuevergne
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-4142, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-4142, 2026
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Landslides tend to rupture in predictable size patterns, but working out where and how deep a slope will fail has remained difficult. We built a simple slope stability model, that calculates the most likely rupture depth and shape at each point on a landscape. The model reproduced real landslide size patterns. This model also revealed the slopes which are still adjusting after past geological change, like river carving or cathment divide migration, helping pinpoint landslide-prone terrain.
Aude Lurin, Philippe Steer, Fiona Clubb, and Boris Gailleton
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-3145, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-3145, 2026
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The dynamics of mountains landscapes is controled by their valley networks. The morphology of valleys, including their width, impacts how they transmit sediments and water and record tectonic or climatic signals. In order to further our understanding of the controls of valley morphology and width, we compare two automatic valley extraction methods in four regions. We then evaluate how valley width and morphology is affected dy drainage area, lithology, and the tectonic and geomorphic setting.
Helen Werner, Dirk Scherler, Tancrède P. M. Leger, Guillaume Jouvet, and Ricarda Winkelmann
The Cryosphere, 20, 2469–2484, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-20-2469-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-20-2469-2026, 2026
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Coarse spatial resolutions reduce computational costs but poorly resolve complex topographies. Our simulations of an alpine ice field at 50 m to 2 km resolution show similar ice areas, yet much higher volumes at coarser resolutions. Resolutions of 300 m and finer accurately capture topographically constrained flow, while coarse resolutions flatten mountain slopes and peaks, affecting ice velocities, thickness, and thermal regimes which emphasizes the need for sufficiently high-resolution models.
Ron Nativ, Dimitri Lague, Paul Leroy, Laure Guerit, Thomas Bernard, Mathilde Letard, Daniel Girardeau-Montaut, Vincent Godard, Rodolphe Cattin, Olivier Payrastre, and Philippe Steer
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-724, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-724, 2026
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We mapped the riverbed through a 28 km canyon in southern France using airborne laser measurements, where field surveys are difficult and risky. By reprocessing the full recorded signal and combining it with targeted sonar checks, we recovered deeper and more complete underwater terrain than standard approaches. The resulting riverbed elevation model preserves key channel shapes needed for improved flood simulations, habitat assessment, and river management.
Marion Fournereau, Laure Guerit, Philippe Steer, Jean-Jacques Kermarrec, Paul Leroy, Christophe Lanos, Hélène Hivert, Claire Astrié, and Dimitri Lague
Earth Surf. Dynam., 14, 191–210, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-14-191-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-14-191-2026, 2026
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River bedrock erosion can occur by abrasion and by the removal of entire blocks. We observe that when there is no or few fractures most erosion occurs by abrasion, whereas with more fractures, blocks can be removed at once leading to different patterns of erosion and riverbed morphology. Fractures affect barely mean erosion rate but change the location and occurrence of block removal. Our results highlight how river bedrock properties influence erosion processes and thus landscape evolution.
Nazaré Suziane Soares, Carlos Alexandre Gomes Costa, Till Francke, Christian Mohr, Wolfgang Schwanghart, and Pedro Henrique Augusto Medeiros
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 30, 849–875, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-30-849-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-30-849-2026, 2026
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We use drone surveys to map river intermittency in reaches and classify them into "Wet", "Transition", "Dry" or "Not Determined". We train Random Forest models with 40 candidate predictors, and select altitude, drainage area, distance from dams and dynamic predictors. We separate different models based on dynamic predictors: satellite indices (a) and (b); or (c) antecedent precipitation index (30 days). Model (a) is the most successful in simulating intermittency both temporally and spatially.
Samuel Weber, Jan Beutel, Michael Dietze, Alexander Bast, Robert Kenner, Marcia Phillips, Johannes Leinauer, Simon Mühlbauer, Felix Pfluger, and Michael Krautblatter
Earth Surf. Dynam., 13, 1157–1179, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-1157-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-1157-2025, 2025
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On 13 June 2023, a freestanding rock pillar on the Matterhorn collapsed after years of weakening. Our study examines this progressive destabilization by analyzing field data and integrating lab experiments into a hydro-mechanical model. We highlight the critical role of water infiltration into frozen rock, intensified by climate warming, as a widespread driver of the rising frequency of rockfalls in high mountain permafrost regions.
Thomas Geffroy, Philippe Yamato, Philippe Steer, Benjamin Guillaume, and Thibault Duretz
Solid Earth, 16, 1289–1306, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-16-1289-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-16-1289-2025, 2025
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While erosion's role in mountain building is well known, deformation from valley incision in inactive regions is less understood. Using our numerical models, we show that incision alone can cause significant crustal deformation and drive lower crust exhumation. This is favored in areas with thick crust, weak lower crust, and high plateaux. Our results show surface processes can reshape Earth's surface over time.
Coline Ariagno, Philippe Steer, Pierre G. Valla, and Benjamin Campforts
Earth Surf. Dynam., 13, 1109–1132, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-1109-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-1109-2025, 2025
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This study explore the impact of landslides on Alpine terrain using a landscape evolution model called
Hyland, which enables long-term topographical analysis. Our finding reveal that landslides are concentrated at two specific elevations over time and predominantly affect the highest and steepest slopes, particularly along ridges and crests. This study is part of a broader question concerning the origin of accelerated erosion during the Quaternary period.
Boris Gailleton, Philippe Steer, Philippe Davy, Wolfgang Schwanghart, and Thomas Bernard
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 1295–1313, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-1295-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-1295-2024, 2024
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We use cutting-edge algorithms and conceptual simplifications to solve the equations that describe surface water flow. Using quantitative data on rainfall and elevation, GraphFlood calculates river width and depth and approximates erosive power, making it a suitable tool for large-scale hazard management and understanding the relationship between rivers and mountains.
Wolfgang Schwanghart, Ankit Agarwal, Kristen Cook, Ugur Ozturk, Roopam Shukla, and Sven Fuchs
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 24, 3291–3297, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-3291-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-3291-2024, 2024
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The Himalayan landscape is particularly susceptible to extreme events, which interfere with increasing populations and the expansion of settlements and infrastructure. This preface introduces and summarizes the nine papers that are part of the special issue,
Estimating and predicting natural hazards and vulnerabilities in the Himalayan region.
Jürgen Mey, Ravi Kumar Guntu, Alexander Plakias, Igo Silva de Almeida, and Wolfgang Schwanghart
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 24, 3207–3223, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-3207-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-3207-2024, 2024
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The Himalayan road network links remote areas, but fragile terrain and poor construction lead to frequent landslides. This study on the NH-7 in India's Uttarakhand region analyzed 300 landslides after heavy rainfall in 2022 . Factors like slope, rainfall, rock type and road work influence landslides. The study's model predicts landslide locations for better road maintenance planning, highlighting the risk from climate change and increased road use.
Johannes Leinauer, Michael Dietze, Sibylle Knapp, Riccardo Scandroglio, Maximilian Jokel, and Michael Krautblatter
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 1027–1048, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-1027-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-1027-2024, 2024
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Massive rock slope failures are a significant alpine hazard and change the Earth's surface. Therefore, we must understand what controls the preparation of such events. By correlating 4 years of slope displacements with meteorological and seismic data, we found that water from rain and snowmelt is the most important driver. Our approach is applicable to similar sites and indicates where future climatic changes, e.g. in rain intensity and frequency, may alter the preparation of slope failure.
Sebastian Vogel, Katja Emmerich, Ingmar Schröter, Eric Bönecke, Wolfgang Schwanghart, Jörg Rühlmann, Eckart Kramer, and Robin Gebbers
SOIL, 10, 321–333, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-10-321-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-10-321-2024, 2024
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To rapidly obtain high-resolution soil pH data, pH sensors can measure the pH value directly in the field under the current soil moisture (SM) conditions. The influence of SM on pH and on its measurement quality was studied. An SM increase causes a maximum pH increase of 1.5 units. With increasing SM, the sensor pH value approached the standard pH value measured in the laboratory. Thus, at high soil moisture, calibration of the sensor pH values to the standard pH value is negligible.
Christian H. Mohr, Michael Dietze, Violeta Tolorza, Erwin Gonzalez, Benjamin Sotomayor, Andres Iroume, Sten Gilfert, and Frieder Tautz
Biogeosciences, 21, 1583–1599, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-1583-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-1583-2024, 2024
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Coastal temperate rainforests, among Earth’s carbon richest biomes, are systematically underrepresented in the global network of critical zone observatories (CZOs). Introducing here a first CZO in the heart of the Patagonian rainforest, Chile, we investigate carbon sink functioning, biota-driven landscape evolution, fluxes of matter and energy, and disturbance regimes. We invite the community to join us in cross-disciplinary collaboration to advance science in this particular environment.
Natalie Barbosa, Johannes Leinauer, Juilson Jubanski, Michael Dietze, Ulrich Münzer, Florian Siegert, and Michael Krautblatter
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 249–269, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-249-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-249-2024, 2024
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Massive sediment pulses in catchments are a key alpine multi-risk component. Combining high-resolution aerial imagery and seismic information, we decipher a multi-stage >130.000 m³ rockfall and subsequent sediment pulses over 4 years, reflecting sediment deposition up to 10 m, redistribution in the basin, and finally debouchure to the outlet. This study provides generic information on spatial and temporal patterns of massive sediment pulses in highly charged alpine catchments.
Anna-Maartje de Boer, Wolfgang Schwanghart, Jürgen Mey, Basanta Raj Adhikari, and Tony Reimann
Geochronology, 6, 53–70, https://doi.org/10.5194/gchron-6-53-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gchron-6-53-2024, 2024
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This study tested the application of single-grain feldspar luminescence for dating and reconstructing sediment dynamics of an extreme mass movement event in the Himalayan mountain range. Our analysis revealed that feldspar signals can be used to estimate the age range of the deposits if the youngest subpopulation from a sample is retrieved. The absence of clear spatial relationships with our bleaching proxies suggests that sediments were transported under extremely limited light exposure.
Emma L. S. Graf, Hugh D. Sinclair, Mikaël Attal, Boris Gailleton, Basanta Raj Adhikari, and Bishnu Raj Baral
Earth Surf. Dynam., 12, 135–161, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-135-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-12-135-2024, 2024
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Using satellite images, we show that, unlike other examples of earthquake-affected rivers, the rivers of central Nepal experienced little increase in sedimentation following the 2015 Gorkha earthquake. Instead, a catastrophic flood occurred in 2021 that buried towns and agricultural land under up to 10 m of sediment. We show that intense storms remobilised glacial sediment from high elevations causing much a greater impact than flushing of earthquake-induced landslides.
Boris Gailleton, Luca C. Malatesta, Guillaume Cordonnier, and Jean Braun
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 71–90, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-71-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-71-2024, 2024
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This contribution presents a new method to numerically explore the evolution of mountain ranges and surrounding areas. The method helps in monitoring with details on the timing and travel path of material eroded from the mountain ranges. It is particularly well suited to studies juxtaposing different domains – lakes or multiple rock types, for example – and enables the combination of different processes.
Jürgen Mey, Wolfgang Schwanghart, Anna-Maartje de Boer, and Tony Reimann
Geochronology, 5, 377–389, https://doi.org/10.5194/gchron-5-377-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gchron-5-377-2023, 2023
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This study presents the results of an outdoor flume experiment to evaluate the effect of turbidity on the bleaching of fluvially transported sediment. Our main conclusions are that even small amounts of sediment lead to a substantial change in the intensity and frequency distribution of light within the suspension and that flow turbulence is an important prerequisite for bleaching grains during transport.
Monika Pfau, Georg Veh, and Wolfgang Schwanghart
The Cryosphere, 17, 3535–3551, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3535-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3535-2023, 2023
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Cast shadows have been a recurring problem in remote sensing of glaciers. We show that the length of shadows from surrounding mountains can be used to detect gains or losses in glacier elevation.
Richard Ott, Sean F. Gallen, and David Helman
Earth Surf. Dynam., 11, 247–257, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-247-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-247-2023, 2023
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We compile data on carbonate denudation, the sum of mechanical erosion and chemical weathering, from cosmogenic nuclides and use them in conjunction with weathering data to constrain the partitioning of denudation into erosion and weathering. We show how carbonate erosion and weathering respond to different climatic and tectonic conditions and find that variations in denudation partitioning can be used to explain the vastly different morphology of carbonate landscapes on Earth.
Jürgen Mey, Ravi Kumar Guntu, Alexander Plakias, Igo Silva de Almeida, and Wolfgang Schwanghart
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-2022-295, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-2022-295, 2023
Manuscript not accepted for further review
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The current socioeconomic development in the Himalayan region leads to a rapid expansion of the road network and an increase in the exposure to landslides. Our study along the NH-7 demonstrates the scale of this challenge as we detect more than one partially or fully road-blocking landslide per road kilometer. We identify the main controlling variables, i.e. slope angle, rainfall amount and lithology. As our approach uses a minimum of data, it can be extended to more complicated road networks.
Fabian Walter, Elias Hodel, Erik S. Mannerfelt, Kristen Cook, Michael Dietze, Livia Estermann, Michaela Wenner, Daniel Farinotti, Martin Fengler, Lukas Hammerschmidt, Flavia Hänsli, Jacob Hirschberg, Brian McArdell, and Peter Molnar
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 4011–4018, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-4011-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-4011-2022, 2022
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Debris flows are dangerous sediment–water mixtures in steep terrain. Their formation takes place in poorly accessible terrain where instrumentation cannot be installed. Here we propose to monitor such source terrain with an autonomous drone for mapping sediments which were left behind by debris flows or may contribute to future events. Short flight intervals elucidate changes of such sediments, providing important information for landscape evolution and the likelihood of future debris flows.
Philippe Steer, Laure Guerit, Dimitri Lague, Alain Crave, and Aurélie Gourdon
Earth Surf. Dynam., 10, 1211–1232, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-10-1211-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-10-1211-2022, 2022
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The morphology and size of sediments influence erosion efficiency, sediment transport and the quality of aquatic ecosystem. In turn, the spatial evolution of sediment size provides information on the past dynamics of erosion and sediment transport. We have developed a new software which semi-automatically identifies and measures sediments based on 3D point clouds. This software is fast and efficient, offering a new avenue to measure the geometrical properties of large numbers of sediment grains.
Lucas Pelascini, Philippe Steer, Maxime Mouyen, and Laurent Longuevergne
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 3125–3141, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-3125-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-3125-2022, 2022
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Landslides represent a major natural hazard and are often triggered by typhoons. We present a new 2D model computing the respective role of rainfall infiltration, atmospheric depression and groundwater in slope stability during typhoons. The results show rainfall is the strongest factor of destabilisation. However, if the slope is fully saturated, near the toe of the slope or during the wet season, rainfall infiltration is limited and atmospheric pressure change can become the dominant factor.
Richard F. Ott, Sean F. Gallen, and Darryl E. Granger
Geochronology, 4, 455–470, https://doi.org/10.5194/gchron-4-455-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/gchron-4-455-2022, 2022
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Cosmogenic nuclides are a tool to quantify denudation – the total removal of mass from near the Earth's surface. Chemical weathering can introduce biases to cosmogenic-nuclide-based denudation rates measurements. Here, we investigate the effects of weathering on cosmogenic nuclides and develop tools to correct for this influence. Our results highlight which additional measurements are required to determine accurate denudation rates in regions where weathering is not negligible.
Michael Dietze, Rainer Bell, Ugur Ozturk, Kristen L. Cook, Christoff Andermann, Alexander R. Beer, Bodo Damm, Ana Lucia, Felix S. Fauer, Katrin M. Nissen, Tobias Sieg, and Annegret H. Thieken
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 1845–1856, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-1845-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-1845-2022, 2022
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The flood that hit Europe in July 2021, specifically the Eifel, Germany, was more than a lot of fast-flowing water. The heavy rain that fell during the 3 d before also caused the slope to fail, recruited tree trunks that clogged bridges, and routed debris across the landscape. Especially in the upper parts of the catchments the flood was able to gain momentum. Here, we discuss how different landscape elements interacted and highlight the challenges of holistic future flood anticipation.
Michael Dietze, Sebastian Kreutzer, Margret C. Fuchs, and Sascha Meszner
Geochronology, 4, 323–338, https://doi.org/10.5194/gchron-4-323-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/gchron-4-323-2022, 2022
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The R package sandbox is a collection of functions that allow the creation, sampling and analysis of fully virtual sediment sections, like having a virtual twin of real-world deposits. This article introduces the concept, features, and workflows required to use sandbox. It shows how a real-world sediment section can be mapped into the model and subsequently addresses a series of theoretical and practical questions, exploiting the flexibility of the model framework.
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Editorial statement
This paper presents the latest iteration of the TOPOTOOLBOX software that has been extensively used over the last ten years for analysing landscapes for geomorphic/earth science research.
This paper presents the latest iteration of the TOPOTOOLBOX software that has been extensively...
Short summary
TopoToolbox is a software package that enables users to analyze maps of the Earth's surface. The newest version of TopoToolbox makes it accessible to more users, makes it easier to integrate TopoToolbox with other software used to study the Earth's surface and establishes a new development process to ensure that TopoToolbox continues to meet the needs of its community of users. We present a series of examples to demonstrate how users can incorporate the new TopoToolbox version into their work.
TopoToolbox is a software package that enables users to analyze maps of the Earth's surface. The...
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