Articles | Volume 8, issue 3
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 769–787, 2020
https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-769-2020
© Author(s) 2020. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 769–787, 2020
https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-769-2020
© Author(s) 2020. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article 22 Sep 2020
Research article | 22 Sep 2020
Timing of exotic, far-traveled boulder emplacement and paleo-outburst flooding in the central Himalayas
Marius L. Huber et al.
Related authors
H. Bernsteiner, N. Brožová, I. Eischeid, A. Hamer, S. Haselberger, M. Huber, A. Kollert, T. M. Vandyk, and F. Pirotti
ISPRS Ann. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci., V-3-2020, 431–437, https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-annals-V-3-2020-431-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-annals-V-3-2020-431-2020, 2020
Elena T. Bruni, Richard F. Ott, Vincenzo Picotti, Negar Haghipour, Karl W. Wegmann, and Sean F. Gallen
Earth Surf. Dynam. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2021-4, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2021-4, 2021
Preprint under review for ESurf
Short summary
Short summary
The Klados River catchment contains seemingly overlarge, well-preserved, alluvial terraces and fans. Unlike previous studies, we argue that the deposits formed in the Holocene based on their relative position to a paleoshoreline uplifted in AD365 and seven radiocarbon dates. Besides, we find that constant sediment supply from high-lying landslide deposits disconnected the valley from regional tectonics and climate controls, which resulted in fan and terrace formation guided by stochastic events.
Anne-Marie Wefing, Núria Casacuberta, Marcus Christl, Nicolas Gruber, and John N. Smith
Ocean Sci., 17, 111–129, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-17-111-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-17-111-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Atlantic Water that carries heat and anthropogenic carbon into the Arctic Ocean plays an important role in the Arctic sea-ice cover decline, but its pathways and travel times remain unclear. Here we used two radionuclides of anthropogenic origin (129I and 236U) to track Atlantic-derived waters along their way through the Arctic Ocean, estimating their travel times and mixing properties. Results help to understand how future changes in Atlantic Water properties will spread through the Arctic.
Hannah Gies, Frank Hagedorn, Maarten Lupker, Daniel Montluçon, Negar Haghipour, Tessa Sophia van der Voort, and Timothy Ian Eglinton
Biogeosciences, 18, 189–205, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-189-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-189-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Understanding controls on the persistence of organic matter in soils is essential to constrain its role in the carbon cycle. Emerging concepts suggest that the soil carbon pool is predominantly comprised of stabilized microbial residues. To test this hypothesis we isolated microbial membrane lipids from two Swiss soil profiles and measured their radiocarbon age. We find that the ages of these compounds are in the range of millenia and thus provide evidence for stabilized microbial mass in soils.
Leonie Peti, Kathryn E. Fitzsimmons, Jenni L. Hopkins, Andreas Nilsson, Toshiyuki Fujioka, David Fink, Charles Mifsud, Marcus Christl, Raimund Muscheler, and Paul C. Augustinus
Geochronology, 2, 367–410, https://doi.org/10.5194/gchron-2-367-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/gchron-2-367-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Orakei Basin – a former maar lake in Auckland, New Zealand – provides an outstanding sediment record over the last ca. 130 000 years, but an age model is required to allow the reconstruction of climate change and volcanic eruptions contained in the sequence. To construct a relationship between depth in the sediment core and age of deposition, we combined tephrochronology, radiocarbon dating, luminescence dating, and the relative intensity of the paleomagnetic field in a Bayesian age–depth model.
H. Bernsteiner, N. Brožová, I. Eischeid, A. Hamer, S. Haselberger, M. Huber, A. Kollert, T. M. Vandyk, and F. Pirotti
ISPRS Ann. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci., V-3-2020, 431–437, https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-annals-V-3-2020-431-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-annals-V-3-2020-431-2020, 2020
David Mair, Alessandro Lechmann, Romain Delunel, Serdar Yeşilyurt, Dmitry Tikhomirov, Christof Vockenhuber, Marcus Christl, Naki Akçar, and Fritz Schlunegger
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 637–659, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-637-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-637-2020, 2020
François Clapuyt, Veerle Vanacker, Marcus Christl, Kristof Van Oost, and Fritz Schlunegger
Solid Earth, 10, 1489–1503, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-1489-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-1489-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
Using state-of-the-art geomorphic techniques, we quantified a 2-order of magnitude discrepancy between annual, decadal, and millennial sediment fluxes of a landslide-affected mountainous river catchment in the Swiss Alps. Our results illustrate that the impact of a single sediment pulse is strongly attenuated at larger spatial and temporal scales by sediment transport. The accumulation of multiple sediment pulses has rather a measurable impact on the regional pattern of sediment fluxes.
Maxi Castrillejo, Núria Casacuberta, Marcus Christl, Christof Vockenhuber, Hans-Arno Synal, Maribel I. García-Ibáñez, Pascale Lherminier, Géraldine Sarthou, Jordi Garcia-Orellana, and Pere Masqué
Biogeosciences, 15, 5545–5564, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-5545-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-5545-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
The investigation of water mass transport pathways and timescales is important to understand the global ocean circulation. Following earlier studies, we use artificial radionuclides introduced to the oceans in the 1950s to investigate the water transport in the subpolar North Atlantic (SPNA). For the first time, we combine measurements of the long-lived iodine-129 and uranium-236 to confirm earlier findings/hypotheses and to better understand shallow and deep ventilation processes in the SPNA.
Max Boxleitner, Susan Ivy-Ochs, Dagmar Brandova, Marcus Christl, Markus Egli, and Max Maisch
Geogr. Helv., 73, 241–252, https://doi.org/10.5194/gh-73-241-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/gh-73-241-2018, 2018
Muhammed Ojoshogu Usman, Frédérique Marie Sophie Anne Kirkels, Huub Michel Zwart, Sayak Basu, Camilo Ponton, Thomas Michael Blattmann, Michael Ploetze, Negar Haghipour, Cameron McIntyre, Francien Peterse, Maarten Lupker, Liviu Giosan, and Timothy Ian Eglinton
Biogeosciences, 15, 3357–3375, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-3357-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-3357-2018, 2018
Catharina Dieleman, Susan Ivy-Ochs, Kristina Hippe, Olivia Kronig, Florian Kober, and Marcus Christl
E&G Quaternary Sci. J., 67, 17–23, https://doi.org/10.5194/egqsj-67-17-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/egqsj-67-17-2018, 2018
Antoine Cogez, Frédéric Herman, Éric Pelt, Thierry Reuschlé, Gilles Morvan, Christopher M. Darvill, Kevin P. Norton, Marcus Christl, Lena Märki, and François Chabaux
Earth Surf. Dynam., 6, 121–140, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-6-121-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-6-121-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
Sediments produced by glaciers are transported by rivers and wind toward the ocean. During their journey, these sediments are weathered, and we know that this has an impact on climate. One key factor is time, but the duration of this journey is largely unknown. We were able to measure the average time that sediment spends only in the glacial area. This time is 100–200 kyr, which is long and allows a lot of processes to act on sediments during their journey.
Lorenz Wüthrich, Claudio Brändli, Régis Braucher, Heinz Veit, Negar Haghipour, Carla Terrizzano, Marcus Christl, Christian Gnägi, and Roland Zech
E&G Quaternary Sci. J., 66, 57–68, https://doi.org/10.5194/egqsj-66-57-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/egqsj-66-57-2017, 2017
Maarten Lupker, Jérôme Lavé, Christian France-Lanord, Marcus Christl, Didier Bourlès, Julien Carcaillet, Colin Maden, Rainer Wieler, Mustafizur Rahman, Devojit Bezbaruah, and Liu Xiaohan
Earth Surf. Dynam., 5, 429–449, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-429-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-429-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
We use geochemical approaches (10Be) on river sediments to quantify the erosion rates across the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra (TB) catchment in the eastern Himalayas. Our approach confirms the high erosion rates in the eastern Himalayan syntaxis region and we suggest that the abrasion of landslide material in the syntaxis is a key process in explaining how erosion signals are transferred to the sediment load.
Eric Laloy, Koen Beerten, Veerle Vanacker, Marcus Christl, Bart Rogiers, and Laurent Wouters
Earth Surf. Dynam., 5, 331–345, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-331-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-331-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
Over very long timescales, 100 000 years or more, landscapes may drastically change. Sediments preserved in these landscapes have a cosmogenic radionuclide inventory that tell us when and how fast such changes took place. In this paper, we provide first evidence of an elevated long-term erosion rate of the northwestern Campine Plateau (lowland Europe), which can be explained by the loose nature of the subsoil.
Jean L. Dixon, Friedhelm von Blanckenburg, Kurt Stüwe, and Marcus Christl
Earth Surf. Dynam., 4, 895–909, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-895-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-895-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
We quantify the glacial legacy of Holocene erosion at the eastern edge of the European Alps and add insight to the debate on drivers of Alpine erosion. We present the first data explicitly comparing 10Be-based erosion rates in previously glaciated and non-glaciated basins (n = 26). Erosion rates vary 5-fold across the region, correlating with local topography and glacial history. Our approach and unique study site allow us to isolate the role of glacial topographic legacies from other controls.
Maarten Lupker, Christian France-Lanord, and Bruno Lartiges
Earth Surf. Dynam., 4, 675–684, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-675-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-675-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
Rivers export the products of continental weathering to the oceans. It is important to accurately constrain these fluxes to better understand global biogeochemical cycles. The riverine export of major cation species in particular contributes to regulate the long-term carbon cycle. In this work we quantify some additional fluxes to the ocean that may occur when solid sediments react with seawater in estuaries. These fluxes have been only poorly constrained so far.
Related subject area
Physical: Geomorphology (including all aspects of fluvial, coastal, aeolian, hillslope and glacial geomorphology)
Different coastal marsh sites reflect similar topographic conditions under which bare patches and vegetation recovery occur
Coupling threshold theory and satellite-derived channel width to estimate the formative discharge of Himalayan foreland rivers
Inertial drag and lift forces for coarse grains on rough alluvial beds measured using in-grain accelerometers
GERALDINE (Google Earth Engine supRaglAciaL Debris INput dEtector): a new tool for identifying and monitoring supraglacial landslide inputs
Short communication: Multiscalar roughness length decomposition in fluvial systems using a transform-roughness correlation (TRC) approach
Evolution of events before and after the 17 June 2017 rock avalanche at Karrat Fjord, West Greenland – a multidisciplinary approach to detecting and locating unstable rock slopes in a remote Arctic area
Quantifying Thresholds of Barrier Geomorphic Change in a Cross-Shore Sediment Partitioning Model
Complementing scale experiments of rivers and estuaries with numerically modelled hydrodynamics
Characterization of morphological units in a small, forested stream using close-range remotely piloted aircraft imagery
Laboratory observations on meltwater meandering rivulets on ice
Topographic controls on divide migration, stream capture, and diversification in riverine life
Ice sheet and palaeoclimate controls on drainage network evolution: an example from Dogger Bank, North Sea
Experimental study of sediment supply control on step formation, evolution, and stability
A bed load transport equation based on the spatial distribution of shear stress – Oak Creek revisited
Morphometric properties of alternate bars and water discharge: a laboratory investigation
A 6-year lidar survey reveals enhanced rockwall retreat and modified rockfall magnitudes/frequencies in deglaciating cirques
Short communication: Field data reveal that the transport probability of clasts in Peruvian and Swiss streams mainly depends on the sorting of the grains
How do modeling choices impact the representation of structural connectivity and the dynamics of suspended sediment fluxes in distributed soil erosion models?
Growing topography due to contrasting rock types in a tectonically dead landscape
Alluvial cover on bedrock channels: applicability of existing models
How Hack distributions of rill networks contribute to nonlinear slope length–soil loss relationships
Scale breaks of suspended sediment rating in large rivers in Germany induced by organic matter
Modelling impacts of spatially variable erosion drivers on suspended sediment dynamics
Mātauranga Māori in geomorphology: existing frameworks, case studies, and recommendations for incorporating Indigenous knowledge in Earth science
The impact of earthquakes on orogen-scale exhumation
Implications of present ground temperatures and relict stone stripes in the Ethiopian Highlands for the palaeoclimate of the tropics
Quantifying sediment mass redistribution from joint time-lapse gravimetry and photogrammetry surveys
Controls on the hydraulic geometry of alluvial channels: bank stability to gravitational failure, the critical-flow hypothesis, and conservation of mass and energy
Parameterization of river incision models requires accounting for environmental heterogeneity: insights from the tropical Andes
Measuring river planform changes from remotely sensed data – a Monte Carlo approach to assessing the impact of spatially variable error
Entrainment and suspension of sand and gravel
Morphological evolution of bifurcations in tide-influenced deltas
Short communication: Landlab v2.0: a software package for Earth surface dynamics
Storm-induced sediment supply to coastal dunes on sand flats
Emerging crescentic patterns in modelled double sandbar systems under normally incident waves
Experimental evidence for bifurcation angles control on abandoned channel fill geometry
Large wood as a confounding factor in interpreting the width of spring-fed streams
River patterns reveal two stages of landscape evolution at an oblique convergent margin, Marlborough Fault System, New Zealand
Estimating sand bed load in rivers by tracking dunes: a comparison of methods based on bed elevation time series
Mass balance, grade, and adjustment timescales in bedrock channels
Determining flow directions in river channel networks using planform morphology and topology
Stabilising large grains in self-forming steep channels
Dynamic allometry in coastal overwash morphology
Potential links between Baltic Sea submarine terraces and groundwater seeping
Estimating the disequilibrium in denudation rates due to divide migration at the scale of river basins
Permafrost distribution in steep rock slopes in Norway: measurements, statistical modelling and implications for geomorphological processes
Reconstruction of river valley evolution before and after the emplacement of the giant Seymareh rock avalanche (Zagros Mts., Iran)
Experiments on patterns of alluvial cover and bedrock erosion in a meandering channel
How does the downstream boundary affect avulsion dynamics in a laboratory bifurcation?
River channel width controls blocking by slow-moving landslides in California's Franciscan mélange
Chen Wang, Lennert Schepers, Matthew L. Kirwan, Enrica Belluco, Andrea D'Alpaos, Qiao Wang, Shoujing Yin, and Stijn Temmerman
Earth Surf. Dynam., 9, 71–88, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-9-71-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-9-71-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Coastal marshes are valuable natural habitats with normally dense vegetation. The presence of bare patches is a symptom of habitat degradation. We found that the occurrence of bare patches and regrowth of vegetation is related to spatial variations in soil surface elevation and to the distance and connectivity to tidal creeks. These relations are similar in three marshes at very different geographical locations. Our results may help nature managers to conserve and restore coastal marshes.
Kumar Gaurav, François Métivier, A V Sreejith, Rajiv Sinha, Amit Kumar, and Sampat Kumar Tandon
Earth Surf. Dynam., 9, 47–70, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-9-47-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-9-47-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
This study demonstrates an innovative methodology to estimate the formative discharge of alluvial rivers from remote sensing images. We have developed an automated algorithm in Python 3 to extract the width of a river channel from satellite images. Finally, this channel width is translated into discharge using a semi-empirical regime equation developed from field measurements and threshold channel theory that explains the first-order geometry of alluvial channels.
Georgios Maniatis, Trevor Hoey, Rebecca Hodge, Dieter Rickenmann, and Alexandre Badoux
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 1067–1099, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-1067-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-1067-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
One of the most interesting problems in geomorphology concerns the conditions that mobilise sediments grains in rivers. Newly developed
smartpebbles allow for the measurement of those conditions directly if a suitable framework for analysis is followed. This paper connects such a framework with the physics used to described sediment motion and presents a series of laboratory and field smart-pebble deployments. Those quantify how grain shape affects the motion of coarse sediments in rivers.
William D. Smith, Stuart A. Dunning, Stephen Brough, Neil Ross, and Jon Telling
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 1053–1065, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-1053-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-1053-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Glacial landslides are difficult to detect and likely underestimated due to rapid covering or dispersal. Without improved detection rates we cannot constrain their impact on glacial dynamics or their potential climatically driven increases in occurrence. Here we present a new open-access tool (GERALDINE) that helps a user detect 92 % of these events over the past 38 years on a global scale. We demonstrate its ability by identifying two new, large glacial landslides in the Hayes Range, Alaska.
David L. Adams and Andrea Zampiron
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 1039–1051, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-1039-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-1039-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
This paper presents a novel method of estimating the relative contribution of different physical scales of river bed topography to the total roughness length, based on thalweg elevation profiles. By providing more detailed information regarding the interaction between surface topography and fluid dynamics, the proposed technique may contribute to advances in hydraulics, channel morphodynamics, and bedload transport. Also, it may provide alternatives to existing representative roughness metrics.
Kristian Svennevig, Trine Dahl-Jensen, Marie Keiding, John Peter Merryman Boncori, Tine B. Larsen, Sara Salehi, Anne Munck Solgaard, and Peter H. Voss
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 1021–1038, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-1021-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-1021-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
The 17 June 2017 Karrat landslide in Greenland caused a tsunami that killed four people. We apply a multidisciplinary workflow to reconstruct a timeline of events and find that three historic landslides occurred in 2009, 2016, and 2017. We also find evidence of much older periods of landslide activity. Three newly discovered active slopes might pose a future hazard. We speculate that the trigger for the recent events is melting permafrost due to a warming climate.
Daniel J. Ciarletta, Jennifer L. Miselis, Justin L. Shawler, and Christopher J. Hein
Earth Surf. Dynam. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2020-88, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2020-88, 2020
Revised manuscript accepted for ESurf
Short summary
Short summary
The world's sandy coastlines are increasingly altered by humans and sea-level rise, yet quantitative relationships between coastal landscapes and sediment availability remain poorly described. Using a novel modeling framework, we explore the evolution of coastal barrier islands under varying rates of sea-level rise and sediment availability. Our model results suggest that as sea levels increase, minor changes in sediment availability could result in rapid changes to barrier coasts.
Steven A. H. Weisscher, Marcio Boechat-Albernaz, Jasper R. F. W. Leuven, Wout M. Van Dijk, Yasuyuki Shimizu, and Maarten G. Kleinhans
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 955–972, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-955-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-955-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Accurate and continuous data collection is challenging in physical scale experiments. A novel means to augment measurements is to numerically model flow over the experimental digital elevation maps. We tested this modelling approach for one tidal and two river scale experiments and showed that modelled water depth and flow velocity closely resemble the measurements. The implication is that conducting experiments requires fewer measurements and results in flow data of better overall quality.
Carina Helm, Marwan A. Hassan, and David Reid
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 913–929, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-913-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-913-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Forested, gravel-bed streams possess complex channel morphologies which are difficult to objectively characterize. This paper describes a novel technique using a remotely piloted aircraft (RPA) to characterize these systems below the forest canopy. The results demonstrate the accuracy and coverage of RPAs for objectively characterizing and classifying these systems relative to more traditional, time-consuming techniques that are generally used in these environments.
Roberto Fernández and Gary Parker
Earth Surf. Dynam. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2020-90, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2020-90, 2020
Revised manuscript accepted for ESurf
Short summary
Short summary
We present a set of observations from laboratory experiments on meltwater meandering rivulets on ice and compare them (qualitatively and quantitatively) to patterns commonly found in meandering channels flowing over different materials. Our channels display great similarities with real rivers in spite of being much smaller. Higher temperature differences between water and ice create deeper and less sinuous channels with bends that preferentially point downstream and are not as rounded.
Nathan J. Lyons, Pedro Val, James S. Albert, Jane K. Willenbring, and Nicole M. Gasparini
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 893–912, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-893-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-893-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Organisms evolve in ever-changing environments under complex process interactions. We applied a new software modelling tool to assess how changes in river course impact the evolution of riverine species. Models illustrate the climatically and tectonically forced landscape changes that can drive riverine biodiversity, especially where topographic relief is low. This research demonstrates that river course changes can contribute to the high riverine biodiversity found in real-world lowland basins.
Andy R. Emery, David M. Hodgson, Natasha L. M. Barlow, Jonathan L. Carrivick, Carol J. Cotterill, Janet C. Richardson, Ruza F. Ivanovic, and Claire L. Mellett
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 869–891, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-869-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-869-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
During the last ice age, sea level was lower, and the North Sea was land. The margin of a large ice sheet was at Dogger Bank in the North Sea. This ice sheet formed large rivers. After the ice sheet retreated down from the high point of Dogger Bank, the rivers had no water supply and dried out. Increased precipitation during the 15 000 years of land exposure at Dogger Bank formed a new drainage network. This study shows how glaciation and climate changes can control how drainage networks evolve.
Matteo Saletti and Marwan A. Hassan
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 855–868, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-855-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-855-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Mountain streams often display a stepped morphology but the conditions under which these steps form, remain stable, and eventually collapse are still not entirely clear. We run flume experiments to study how (a) the amount of sediment input and (b) channel width variations affect step dynamics in steep channels. Steps form preferentially in areas of flow convergence (channel narrowing) and their frequency is higher when sediment supply is larger than zero but smaller than the transport capacity.
Angel Monsalve, Catalina Segura, Nicole Hucke, and Scott Katz
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 825–839, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-825-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-825-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Part of the inaccuracies when estimating bed load transport in
gravel-bed rivers is because we are not considering the wide distributions of shear stress in these systems. We modified a subsurface-based bed load transport equation to include these distributions. By doing so, our approach accurately predicts bed load transport rates when the pavement layer is still present, while the original one predicts zero transport. For high flows, our method had similar performance to the original equation.
Marco Redolfi, Matilde Welber, Mattia Carlin, Marco Tubino, and Walter Bertoldi
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 789–808, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-789-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-789-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Alternate bars are large sediment deposits that tend to naturally form in rivers when the channel width is sufficiently large. Our laboratory experiments on a scaled model reveal that equilibrium properties of self-formed alternate bars highly depend on the water discharge with respect to the relevant theoretical thresholds. This work provides fundamental information for predicting the response of rivers to natural or human alterations of the flow regime.
Ingo Hartmeyer, Markus Keuschnig, Robert Delleske, Michael Krautblatter, Andreas Lang, Lothar Schrott, Günther Prasicek, and Jan-Christoph Otto
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 753–768, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-753-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-753-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Rockfall size and frequency in two deglaciating cirques in the Central Alps, Austria, is analysed based on 6-year rockwall monitoring with terrestrial lidar (2011–2017). The erosion rates derived from this dataset are very high due to a frequent occurrence of large rockfalls in freshly deglaciated areas. The results obtained are important for rockfall hazard assessments, as, in rockwalls affected by glacier retreat, historical rockfall patterns are not good predictors of future events.
Fritz Schlunegger, Romain Delunel, and Philippos Garefalakis
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 717–728, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-717-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-717-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
We calculated the probability of sediment transport in coarse-grained mountainous streams in the Alps and the Andes where data on water discharge is available. We find a positive correlation between the predicted probability of sediment transport and the grain size sorting of the bed material. We suggest that besides sediment discharge, the bedload sorting exerts a significant influence on the mobility of sediment and thus on the stability of gravel bars in mountainous streams.
Magdalena Uber, Guillaume Nord, Cédric Legout, and Luis Cea
Earth Surf. Dynam. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2020-64, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2020-64, 2020
Revised manuscript accepted for ESurf
Short summary
Short summary
Soil erosion and suspended sediment transport understanding is an important issue in terms of soil and water resources management. This study analyzes the impact of choices made during numerical model set-up on the modelled suspended sediment dynamics at the outlet of two meso scale watersheds. While the modelled liquid and solid discharges were found to be sensitive to these choices, the actual location of sediment sources in each catchment was the most important feature.
Daniel Peifer, Cristina Persano, Martin D. Hurst, Paul Bishop, and Derek Fabel
Earth Surf. Dynam. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2020-68, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2020-68, 2020
Revised manuscript accepted for ESurf
Short summary
Short summary
Plate tectonics drives the formation of mountain ranges. Yet when tectonic forces cease, mountain ranges persist for hundreds of millions of years, forming major Earth surface features. Our contribution presents denudation rate estimates from one such ancient mountain range that show that denudation is strongly tied to rock type. Resistant rocks are denuding more slowly despite having much steeper topography and contrasts in rock type cause increasing relief in the absence of active tectonics.
Jagriti Mishra and Takuya Inoue
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 695–716, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-695-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-695-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
This study provides an extensive review of field- and laboratory-scale studies and mathematical models used for predicting the sediment processes in bedrock river channels. We tested the model capabilities by reproducing and comparing the results with laboratory-scale experiments. This study provides an insight into the strengths and shortcomings of various available models.
Tyler H. Doane, Jon D. Pelletier, and Mary H. Nichols
Earth Surf. Dynam. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2020-63, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2020-63, 2020
Revised manuscript under review for ESurf
Short summary
Short summary
This paper explores how the geometry of rill networks contributes to observed nonlinear relationships between soil loss and hillslope length. This work develops probability functions of geometrical quantities of the networks and then extends the theory to hydraulic variables by relying on well-known relationships. Theory is complemented by numerical modeling on numerical and natural surfaces. Results suggest that the particular arrangement of rill networks contributes to nonlinear relationships.
Thomas O. Hoffmann, Yannik Baulig, Helmut Fischer, and Jan Blöthe
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 661–678, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-661-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-661-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
We study the dynamics of suspended matter and associated nutrients in large rivers in Germany. The relationship between suspended sediment concentration and discharge is diagnostic of the processes and sources of suspended matter. We show that suspended matter originates from organic growth within the river at low flow and from soil erosion at high flow. In a warmer climate with increased frequency of droughts, low flow states are likely to be more prolonged, affecting the behavior of rivers.
Giulia Battista, Peter Molnar, and Paolo Burlando
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 619–635, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-619-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-619-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Suspended sediment load in rivers is highly uncertain because of spatial and temporal variability. By means of a hydrology and suspended sediment transport model, we investigated the effect of spatial variability in precipitation and surface erodibility on catchment sediment fluxes in a mesoscale river basin.
We found that sediment load depends on the spatial variability in erosion drivers, as this affects erosion rates and the location and connectivity to the channel of the erosion areas.
Clare Wilkinson, Daniel C. H. Hikuroa, Angus H. Macfarlane, and Matthew W. Hughes
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 595–618, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-595-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-595-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
This review highlights potential contributions that Indigenous knowledge can make to geomorphic research. We evaluate several frameworks and models for including Indigenous knowledge in geomorphic research and discuss how they can be adapted for use with Indigenous communities across the world. We propose that weaving Indigenous knowledge with geomorphic science has the potential to create new solutions and understandings that neither body of knowledge could produce in isolation.
Oliver R. Francis, Tristram C. Hales, Daniel E. J. Hobley, Xuanmei Fan, Alexander J. Horton, Gianvito Scaringi, and Runqiu Huang
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 579–593, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-579-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-579-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Large earthquakes can build mountains by uplifting bedrock, but they also erode them by triggering large volumes of coseismic landsliding. Using a zero-dimensional numerical model, we identify that the storage of sediment produced by earthquakes can affect surface uplift and exhumation rates across the mountain range. However, the storage also reduces the time span at which the impact of the earthquake can be measured, preventing the recognition of single earthquakes in many long-term records.
Alexander R. Groos, Janik Niederhauser, Luise Wraase, Falk Hänsel, Thomas Nauss, Naki Akçar, and Heinz Veit
Earth Surf. Dynam. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2020-53, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2020-53, 2020
Revised manuscript accepted for ESurf
Short summary
Short summary
The magnitude of cooling in tropical high mountains during the last glacial period is controversially debated. Here, we report on enigmatic large sorted stone polygons and stripes from the ~ 4000 m high Sanetti Plateau in Ethiopia. Geomorphological features of that size are associated with seasonal or permanent frost and have yet only been described for few locations in the mid and high latitudes. The presence of these features implies a strong tropical cooling at high elevations in the past.
Maxime Mouyen, Philippe Steer, Kuo-Jen Chang, Nicolas Le Moigne, Cheinway Hwang, Wen-Chi Hsieh, Louise Jeandet, Laurent Longuevergne, Ching-Chung Cheng, Jean-Paul Boy, and Frédéric Masson
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 555–577, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-555-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-555-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Land erosion creates sediment particles that are redistributed from mountains to oceans through climatic, tectonic and human activities, but measuring the mass of redistributed sediment is difficult. Here we describe a new method combining gravity and photogrammetry measurements, which make it possible to weigh the mass of sediment redistributed by a landslide and a river in Taiwan from 2015 to 2017. Trying this method in other regions will help us to better understand the erosion process.
Jon D. Pelletier
Earth Surf. Dynam. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2020-44, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2020-44, 2020
Preprint under review for ESurf
Short summary
Short summary
The sizes and shapes of alluvial channels vary in a systematic way with the water flow they must convey during large floods. It is demonstrated that the depth of alluvial channels is controlled by the resistance of channel bank material to slumping which in turn is controlled by clay content. Deeper channels have faster water flow in a manner controlled by a critical hydraulic state to which channels tend to evolve. Channel width and slope can be further quantified using conservation principles.
Benjamin Campforts, Veerle Vanacker, Frédéric Herman, Matthias Vanmaercke, Wolfgang Schwanghart, Gustavo E. Tenorio, Patrick Willems, and Gerard Govers
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 447–470, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-447-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-447-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
In this contribution, we explore the spatial determinants of bedrock river incision in the tropical Andes. The model results illustrate the problem of confounding between climatic and lithological variables, such as rock strength. Incorporating rock strength explicitly into river incision models strongly improves the explanatory power of all tested models and enables us to clarify the role of rainfall variability in controlling river incision rates.
Timothée Jautzy, Pierre-Alexis Herrault, Valentin Chardon, Laurent Schmitt, and Gilles Rixhon
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 471–484, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-471-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-471-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Remote sensing is widely used to document historical fluvial dynamics. However, the geometric error affecting the inferred planform changes can result in undesired geomorphological misinterpretation. Here, we present a novel approach to quantify the uncertainty associated with eroded/deposited surfaces. Concluding that this uncertainty depends on the magnitude and the shape of the surficial changes, restoration programs targeting lateral mobility of streams can benefit from our approach.
Jan de Leeuw, Michael P. Lamb, Gary Parker, Andrew J. Moodie, Daniel Haught, Jeremy G. Venditti, and Jeffrey A. Nittrouer
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 485–504, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-485-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-485-2020, 2020
Arya P. Iwantoro, Maarten van der Vegt, and Maarten G. Kleinhans
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 413–429, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-413-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-413-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
We investigated the effect of tides on the morphodynamic evolution of bifurcations in tide-influenced deltas. Using results from a numerical morphodynamic model (Delft3D), we found that tides cause less asymmetric bifurcations and thereby keep both downstream channels open. Our results explain why avulsion rarely occurs in tide-influenced deltas, whereas it occurs more often in river-dominated deltas.
Katherine R. Barnhart, Eric W. H. Hutton, Gregory E. Tucker, Nicole M. Gasparini, Erkan Istanbulluoglu, Daniel E. J. Hobley, Nathan J. Lyons, Margaux Mouchene, Sai Siddhartha Nudurupati, Jordan M. Adams, and Christina Bandaragoda
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 379–397, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-379-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-379-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Landlab is a Python package to support the creation of numerical models in Earth surface dynamics. Since the release of the 1.0 version in 2017, Landlab has grown and evolved: it contains 31 new process components, a refactored model grid, and additional utilities. This contribution describes the new elements of Landlab, discusses why certain backward-compatiblity-breaking changes were made, and reflects on the process of community open-source software development.
Filipe Galiforni-Silva, Kathelijne M. Wijnberg, and Suzanne J. M. H. Hulscher
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 335–350, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-335-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-335-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Storm surges are often related to coastal dune erosion. We found that, for specific coastal settings, storm surges may enhance dune growth rather than only undermine it. Using a computer model and elevation data, we noticed that storm surges could deposit sand onto the sand flat from sand previously deposited closer to the sea. As they move to areas farther from the sea, it becomes easier for the wind to move this sand to the dunes. These findings may help coastal managers and policymakers.
Giovanni Coco, Daniel Calvete, Francesca Ribas, Huib E. de Swart, and Albert Falqués
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 323–334, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-323-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-323-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Sandbars are ubiquitous features of the surf zone. They are rarely straight and often develop crescentic shapes. Double sandbar systems are also common, but the possibility of feedback between inner and outer sandbars has not been fully explored. The presence of double sandbar systems affects wave transformation and can result in a variety of spatial patterns. Here we model the conditions, waves and initial bathymetry that lead to the emergence of different patterns.
Léo Szewczyk, Jean-Louis Grimaud, and Isabelle Cojan
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 275–288, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-275-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-275-2020, 2020
Dana Ariel Lapides and Michael Manga
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 195–210, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-195-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-195-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Spring-fed streams throughout volcanic regions of the western United States are wider than runoff-fed streams with similar flow levels. We used high-resolution satellite imagery in combination with flow and climate data to examine the relationship between wood loading and stream width in 38 spring-fed and 20 runoff-fed streams. This study identifies distinct wood dynamics in spring-fed and runoff-fed streams and a strong correlation between stream width and wood length in spring-fed streams.
Alison R. Duvall, Sarah A. Harbert, Phaedra Upton, Gregory E. Tucker, Rebecca M. Flowers, and Camille Collett
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 177–194, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-177-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-177-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
In this study, we examine river patterns and the evolution of the landscape within the Marlborough Fault System, South Island, New Zealand, where the Australian and Pacific tectonic plates collide. We find that faulting, uplift, river capture and the long-lived nature of the drainage network all dictate river patterns at this site. Based on these results and a wealth of previous geologic studies, we propose two broad stages of landscape evolution over the last 25 million years of orogenesis.
Kate C. P. Leary and Daniel Buscombe
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 161–172, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-161-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-161-2020, 2020
Jens Martin Turowski
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 103–122, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-103-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-103-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Bedrock channels are the conveyor belts of mountain regions, evacuating sediment produced by erosion. Bedrock channel morphology and dynamics affect sediment transport rates and local erosion and set the base level for hillslope response. Here, using mechanistic considerations of the processes of fluvial erosion and transport, and considerations of the mass balance of sediment and bedrock, I discuss the principles governing steady-state channel morphology and the dynamic paths to achieve it.
Jon Schwenk, Anastasia Piliouras, and Joel C. Rowland
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 87–102, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-87-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-87-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Standing on a riverbank, it is usually obvious which direction the river flows. However, when observing a river from space, we cannot see the flowing water and must use other clues to determine flow directions. For complicated river channel networks like those of deltas and braided rivers, determining the flow direction of each channel within the network is not trivial. We present and demonstrate a method to automatically determine flow directions for each link in aerially viewed river channels.
William H. Booker and Brett C. Eaton
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 51–67, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-51-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-51-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Using experiments, we found that the form and behaviour of a river depends on its ability to move the larger of its constituents. The manner in which all particles move depends upon the rate and calibre of the supplied material, as well as the rate of supplied water. This goes against the prevailing theory of a single important and representative grain size under depositing conditions, and these results may alter how we interpret river deposits to explain their formation.
Eli D. Lazarus, Kirstin L. Davenport, and Ana Matias
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 37–50, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-37-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-37-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Scaling relationships mathematically describe how two geometric traits of a geomorphic feature change relative to each other in a systematic way (how length changes with area in drainage basins and sedimentary deposits, for example). Here we demonstrate the emergence of scaling relationships in coastal overwash morphology. These findings may help to predict overwash deposition and offer insight into how spatial patterns in overwash morphology may self-organise.
Martin Jakobsson, Matt O'Regan, Carl-Magnus Mörth, Christian Stranne, Elizabeth Weidner, Jim Hansson, Richard Gyllencreutz, Christoph Humborg, Tina Elfwing, Alf Norkko, Joanna Norkko, Björn Nilsson, and Arne Sjöström
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 1–15, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-1-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-1-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
We studied coastal sea floor terraces in parts of the Baltic Sea using various types of sonar data, sediment cores, and video. Terraces (~1 m high, > 100 m long) are widespread in depths < 15 m and are formed in glacial clay. Our study supports an origin from groundwater flow through silty layers, undermining overlying layers when discharged at the sea floor. Submarine groundwater discharge like this may be a significant source of freshwater to the Baltic Sea that needs to be studied further.
Timothée Sassolas-Serrayet, Rodolphe Cattin, Matthieu Ferry, Vincent Godard, and Martine Simoes
Earth Surf. Dynam., 7, 1041–1057, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-1041-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-1041-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
The topographic steady-state assumption is often used in geomorphology. However, recent studies suggest that a drainage network is more mobile than previously thought. Using landscape evolution models, we show that those migrations have a significant impact on basin-wide denudation rates even if an overall topographic steady state is achieved at large scale. Our approach provides new tools to derive minimal uncertainties in basin-scale denudation rates due to this topographic disequilibrium.
Florence Magnin, Bernd Etzelmüller, Sebastian Westermann, Ketil Isaksen, Paula Hilger, and Reginald L. Hermanns
Earth Surf. Dynam., 7, 1019–1040, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-1019-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-1019-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
This study proposes the first permafrost (i.e. ground with temperature permanently < 0 °C) map covering the steep rock slopes of Norway. It was created by using rock temperature data collected at the near surface of 25 rock walls spread across the country between 2010 and 2018. The map shows that permafrost mostly exists above 1300–1400 m a.s.l. in southern Norway and close to sea level in northern Norway. The results have strong potential for the study of rock wall sliding and failure.
Michele Delchiaro, Marta Della Seta, Salvatore Martino, Maryam Dehbozorgi, and Reza Nozaem
Earth Surf. Dynam., 7, 929–947, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-929-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-929-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
This study provides insights into the causes and effects of the largest landslide and related damming that occurred on the emerged Earth surface. Understanding the hazard conditions is important for refining risk mitigation strategies for extreme landslide scenarios. We mapped and dated lacustrine and fluvial terrace sediments constraining the evolutionary model of the valley, thus providing the basis for future studies on the possible seismic trigger for such an extreme case study.
Roberto Fernández, Gary Parker, and Colin P. Stark
Earth Surf. Dynam., 7, 949–968, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-949-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-949-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
This paper describes the case of a meandering bedrock river with loose sediment on the bed. In such rivers, the sediment hits and erodes the bed as it moves with the flow. We did experiments in a laboratory flume to identify the areas where the sediment moves and those where it deposits. We discovered that the size and location of those areas change with the amount of sediment in the channel and its curvature. The fluctuations of sediment cover over the bed drive the erosion potential.
Gerard Salter, Vaughan R. Voller, and Chris Paola
Earth Surf. Dynam., 7, 911–927, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-911-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-911-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
Bifurcations are the switches that steer water and sediment in delta and multithread river networks, playing an important role in shaping the landscape. In lab experiments, we found that when the downstream branches grow through time, frequent switching in the water and sediment partitioning occurs. In contrast, once sediment freely exits the downstream boundary, long periods of time when one branch dominates occur; however, unlike our theoretical prediction, these are not permanent.
Noah J. Finnegan, Kiara N. Broudy, Alexander L. Nereson, Joshua J. Roering, Alexander L. Handwerger, and Georgina Bennett
Earth Surf. Dynam., 7, 879–894, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-879-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-879-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
In some settings, landslides trigger valley blockages that impound huge volumes of sediment, often drastically changing river habitat and habitability. In other settings, landslides appear to have little effect on rivers. In this study, we explore what governs the different sensitivity of rivers to blocking from landslide debris. We accomplish this by comparing two sites in California with dramatic differences in blocking from otherwise similar slow-moving landslides.
Cited articles
Abramowski, U., Glaser, B., Kharki, K., Kubik, P., and Zech, W.: Late
Pleistocene and holocene paleoglaciations of the Nepal Himalaya: 10be
surface exposure dating, Zeitschrift fur Gletscherkunde und
Glazialgeologie, 39, 183–196, 2003.
Ader, T., Avouac, J. P., Liu-Zeng, J., Lyon-Caen, H., Bollinger, L.,
Galetzka, J., Genrich, J., Thomas, M., Chanard, K., and Sapkota, S. N.:
Convergence rate across the Nepal Himalaya and interseismic coupling on the
Main Himalayan Thrust: Implications for seismic hazard, J. Geophys. Res.-Sol. Ea., 117, B04403,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JB009071, 2012.
Alexander, J. and Cooker, M. J.: Moving boulders in flash floods and
estimating flow conditions using boulders in ancient deposits,
Sedimentology, 63, 1582–1595, https://doi.org/10.1111/sed.12274, 2016.
Amatya, K. M. and Jnawali, B. M.: Geological map of Nepal, scale: 1 : 1,000,000, Department of Mines and Geology, International Centre for
Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Carl Duisberg Gesellschaft e. V.,
and United Nations Environment Programme, Kathmandu, Nepal, 1994.
Andermann, C., Crave, A., Gloaguen, R., Davy, P., and Bonnet, S.: Connecting
source and transport: Suspended sediments in the Nepal Himalayas, Earth
Planet. Sc. Lett., 351, 158–170, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2012.06.059,
2012.
Attal, M. and Lavé, J.: Pebble abrasion during fluvial transport:
Experimental results and implications for the evolution of the sediment load
along rivers, J. Geophys. Res.-Ea., 114, F04023,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JF001328, 2009.
Avouac, J.-P.: Mountain building, erosion, and the seismic cycle in the
Nepal Himalaya, Adv. Geophys., 46, 1–80,
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2687(03)46001-9, 2003.
Bilham, R.: Himalayan earthquakes: a review of historical seismicity and
early 21st century slip potential, Geological Society, London, Special
Publications, 483, 423–482, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP483.16, 2019.
Bilham, R., Larson, K., and Freymueller, J.: GPS measurements of present-day
convergence across the Nepal Himalaya, Nature, 386, 61,
https://doi.org/10.1038/386061a0, 1997.
Bollinger, L., Sapkota, S. N., Tapponnier, P., Klinger, Y., Rizza, M., Van
Der Woerd, J., Tiwari, D., Pandey, R., Bitri, A., and Bes de Berc, S.:
Estimating the return times of great Himalayan earthquakes in eastern Nepal:
Evidence from the Patu and Bardibas strands of the Main Frontal Thrust, J.
Geophys. Res.-Sol. Ea., 119, 7123–7163,
https://doi.org/10.1002/2014JB010970, 2014.
Bookhagen, B. and Burbank, D. W.: Toward a complete Himalayan hydrological
budget: Spatiotemporal distribution of snowmelt and rainfall and their
impact on river discharge, J. Geophys. Res.-Ea., 115, F03019,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JF001426, 2010.
Bradley, W. and Mears, A.: Calculations of flows needed to transport coarse
fraction of Boulder Creek alluvium at Boulder, Colorado, Geol. Soc. Am.
Bull., 91, 1057–1090, https://doi.org/10.1130/GSAB-P2-91-1057, 1980.
Bronk Ramsay, C: Computer Programme: OxCal software version 4.3, available at:
https://c14.arch.ox.ac.uk/oxcal.html (last access: February 2020), Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit,
Calibration: IntCal13: Northern Hemisphere, 2013.
Bull, W. B.: Geomorphic responses to climatic change, Oxford University
Press, New York, NY, USA, 326 pp., 1991.
Carling, P. and Tinkler, K.: Conditions for the entrainment of cuboid
boulders in bedrock streams: an historical review of literature with respect
to recent investigations, in: Rivers over rock: Fluvial processes in bedrock
channels, edited by: Tinkler, K. J. and Wohl, E. E., Geophysical Monograph
107, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, USA, 19–34, 1998.
Carling, P., Villanueva, I., Herget, J., Wright, N., Borodavko, P., and
Morvan, H.: Unsteady 1D and 2D hydraulic models with ice dam break for
Quaternary megaflood, Altai Mountains, southern Siberia, Global Planet.
Change, 70, 24–34, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2009.11.005, 2010.
Carling, P. A. and Fan, X.: Particle comminution defines megaflood and
superflood energetics, Earth-Sci. Rev., 204, 103087,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103087, 2020.
Cenderelli, D. A.: Floods from natural and artificial dam failures, in:
Inland Flood Hazards: human, riparian and aquatic communities, edited by:
Wohl, E. E., Cambridge University Press Cambridge, UK, 73–103,
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511529412.004, 2000.
Cenderelli, D. A. and Wohl, E. E.: Peak discharge estimates of glacial-lake
outburst floods and “normal” climatic floods in the Mount Everest region,
Nepal, Geomorphology, 40, 57–90,
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-555X(01)00037-X, 2001.
Chaulagain, H., Gautam, D., and Rodrigues, H.: Revisiting major historical
earthquakes in Nepal: Overview of 1833, 1934, 1980, 1988, 2011, and 2015
seismic events, in: Impacts and insights of the Gorkha earthquake, edited
by: Gautam, D. and Rodrigues, H., Elsevier, Amsterdam, Oxford, Cambridge,
1–17, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-812808-4.00001-8,
2018.
Christl, M., Vockenhuber, C., Kubik, P., Wacker, L., Lachner, J., Alfimov,
V., and Synal, H.-A.: The ETH Zurich AMS facilities: Performance parameters
and reference materials, Nucl. Instrum. Meth. B, 294, 29–38,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nimb.2012.03.004, 2013.
Clague, J. J. and Evans, S. G.: A review of catastrophic drainage of
moraine-dammed lakes in British Columbia, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 19,
1763–1783, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-3791(00)00090-1, 2000.
Clarke, A. O.: Estimating probable maximum floods in the Upper Santa Ana
Basin, Southern California, from stream boulder size, Environ. Eng. Geosci.,
2, 165–182, https://doi.org/10.2113/gseegeosci.II.2.165, 1996.
Costa, J. E.: Paleohydraulic reconstruction of flash-flood peaks from
boulder deposits in the Colorado Front Range, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 94,
986–1004, https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1983)94<986:PROFPF>2.0.CO;2, 1983.
Costa, J. E.: Physical geomorphology of debris flows, in: Developments and
applications of geomorphology, edited by: Costa, J. E. and Fleisher, P. J.,
Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 268–317,
https://doi.org/10.1007/1978-1003-1642-69759-69753_69759, 1984.
Costa, J. E. and Schuster, R. L.: The formation and failure of natural
dams, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 100, 1054–1068,
https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1988)100<1054:TFAFON>2.3.CO;2, 1988.
Dai, F. C., Lee, C. F., Deng, J. H., and Tham, L. G.: The 1786
earthquake-triggered landslide dam and subsequent dam-break flood on the
Dadu River, southwestern China, Geomorphology, 65, 205–221,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2004.08.011, 2005.
Davies, T. R. and Korup, O.: Sediment cascades in active landscapes, in:
Sediment Cascades: An Integrated Approach, edited by: Burt, T. P. and
Allison, R. J., John Wiley and Sons, Ltd, Chichester, UK, 89–115, 2010.
Delaney, K. B. and Evans, S. G.: The 2000 Yigong landslide (Tibetan
Plateau), rockslide-dammed lake and outburst flood: review, remote sensing
analysis, and process modelling, Geomorphology, 246, 377–393,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2015.06.020, 2015.
Denlinger, R. P. and O'Connell, D.: Simulations of cataclysmic outburst
floods from Pleistocene Glacial Lake Missoula, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 122,
678–689, https://doi.org/10.1130/B26454.1, 2010.
Dhital, M. R.: Geology of the Nepal Himalaya – Regional Perspective of the
Classic Collided Orogen, Springer International Publishing, Switzerland,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02496-7, 2015.
DiBiase, R. A. and Whipple, K. X.: The influence of erosion thresholds and
runoff variability on the relationships among topography, climate, and
erosion rate, J. Geophys. Res.-Ea., 116, F04036,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JF002095, 2011.
Dortch, J. M., Owen, L. A., Caffee, M. W., and Kamp, U.: Catastrophic
partial drainage of Pangong Tso, northern India and Tibet, Geomorphology,
125, 109–121, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2010.08.017, 2011.
Finkel, R. C., Owen, L. A., Barnard, P. L., and Caffee, M. W.: Beryllium-10
dating of Mount Everest moraines indicates a strong monsoon influence and
glacial synchroneity throughout the Himalaya, Geology, 31, 561–564,
https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(2003)031<0561:BDOMEM>2.0.CO;2, 2003.
Fort, M.: Sporadic morphogenesis in a continental subduction setting: an
example from the Annapurna Range, Nepal Himalaya, Z. Geomorphol., 63, 9–36,
1987.
Fort, M., Cossart, E., and Arnaud-Fassetta, G.: Hillslope-channel coupling
in the Nepal Himalayas and threat to man-made structures: The middle Kali
Gandaki valley, Geomorphology, 124, 178–199,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2010.09.010, 2010.
Gansser, A.: Geology of the Himalayas, 1 ed., Regional Geology Series, John
Wiley and Sons Ltd, London, New York, Sydney (tr. Zurich), 1964.
Gauckler, P.: Etudes Théoriques et Pratiques sur l'Ecoulement et le
Mouvement des Eaux, Compt. rend. de l'Acad. de Sc. de Paris, t. 64,
Gauthier-Villars, Paris, France, 1867.
Gayer, E., Lavé, J., Pik, R., and France-Lanord, C.: Monsoonal forcing
of Holocene glacier fluctuations in Ganesh Himal (Central Nepal) constrained
by cosmogenic 3He exposure ages of garnets, Earth Planet. Sc. Lett., 252,
275–288, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2006.09.040, 2006.
Glade, R. C., Shobe, C. M., Anderson, R. S., and Tucker, G. E.: Canyon shape
and erosion dynamics governed by channel-hillslope feedbacks, Geology, 47,
650–654, https://doi.org/10.1130/G46219.1, 2019.
GLIMS and NSIDC: Global Land Ice Measurements from Space glacier database,
compiled and made available by the international GLIMS community and the
National Snow and Ice Data Center, Boulder CO, USA,
https://doi.org/10.7265/N5V98602, 2005 (updated 2018).
Google Earth: Satellite Imagery for central Nepal, from Google Earth Version
7.3, retrieved: January 2019.
Gupta, V. and Sah, M.: Impact of the trans-Himalayan landslide lake
outburst flood (LLOF) in the Satluj catchment, Himachal Pradesh, India, Nat.
Hazards, 45, 379–390, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-007-9174-6, 2008.
Harrison, S., Kargel, J. S., Huggel, C., Reynolds, J., Shugar, D. H., Betts, R. A., Emmer, A., Glasser, N., Haritashya, U. K., Klimeš, J., Reinhardt, L., Schaub, Y., Wiltshire, A., Regmi, D., and Vilímek, V.: Climate change and the global pattern of moraine-dammed glacial lake outburst floods, The Cryosphere, 12, 1195–1209, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-1195-2018, 2018.
Heim, A. and Gansser, A.: Thron der Götter: Erlebnisse der ersten
Schweizerischen Himalaya-Expedition, Morgarten-Verlag
Zürich, Switzerland, 1938.
Herzschuh, U.: Palaeo-moisture evolution in monsoonal Central Asia during
the last 50,000 years, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 25, 163–178,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2005.02.006, 2006.
Hewitt, K.: Natural dams and outburst floods of the Karakoram Himalaya,
IAHS-AISH P., 138, 259–269, 1982.
Hewitt, K., Gosse, J., and Clague, J. J.: Rock avalanches and the pace of
late Quaternary development of river valleys in the Karakoram Himalaya,
Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 123, 1836–1850, https://doi.org/10.1130/B30341.1,
2011.
Huber, M. L.: bouldersforpaleohydrology, Gitlab repository, available at: https://gitlab.com/mlh300/bouldersforpaleohydrology/, last modified: July 2019.
Huggel, C., Clague, J. J., and Korup, O.: Is climate change responsible for
changing landslide activity in high mountains?, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 37,
77–91, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.2223, 2012.
Hungr, O., Leroueil, S., and Picarelli, L.: The Varnes classification of
landslide types, an update, Landslides, 11, 167–194,
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-013-0436-y, 2014.
ICIMOD: Glacial lakes and glacial lake outburst floods in Nepal,
International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Kathmandu, Nepal,
2011.
Ives, J. D., Shrestha, R. B., and Mool, P. K.: Formation of glacial lakes in
the Hindu Kush-Himalayas and GLOF risk assessment, International Centre for
Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Kathmandu, Nepal, 2010.
Kattelmann, R.: Glacial lake outburst floods in the Nepal Himalaya: a
manageable hazard?, Nat. Hazards, 28, 145–154,
https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021130101283, 2003.
Korup, O. and Tweed, F.: Ice, moraine, and landslide dams in mountainous
terrain, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 26, 3406–3422,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2007.10.012, 2007.
Lang, K. A., Huntington, K. W., and Montgomery, D. R.: Erosion of the Tsangpo Gorge by megafloods, Eastern Himalaya, Geology, 41, 1003–1006,
https://doi.org/10.1130/G34693.1, 2013.
Lavé, J. and Avouac, J. P.: Fluvial incision and tectonic uplift across
the Himalayas of central Nepal, J. Geophys. Res.-Sol. Ea., 106,
26561–26591, https://doi.org/10.1029/2001JB000359, 2001.
Liu, M., Chen, N., Zhang, Y., and Deng, M.: Glacial Lake Inventory and Lake
Outburst Flood/Debris Flow Hazard Assessment after the Gorkha Earthquake in
the Bhote Koshi Basin, Water-Sui., 12, 464,
https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020464, 2020.
Lu, N. and Godt, J. W.: Hillslope hydrology and stability, Cambridge
University Press, New York, USA,
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139108164, 2013.
Lupker, M., Blard, P.-H., Lavé, J., France-Lanord, C., Leanni, L.,
Puchol, N., Charreau, J., and Bourlès, D.: 10Be-derived Himalayan
denudation rates and sediment budgets in the Ganga basin, Earth Planet. Sc.
Lett., 333–334, 146–156, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2012.04.020, 2012.
Maharjan, S. B., Mool, P. K., Lizong, W., Xiao, G., Shrestha, F., Shrestha,
R. B., Khanal, N. R., Bajracharya, S. R., Joshi, S., Shai, S., and Baral,
P.: The Status of Glacial Lakes in the Hindu Kush Himalaya, International
Centre for Integrated Mountain Development – Research Report, Kathmandu,
Nepal, 2018.
Manning, R.: On the flow of water in open channels and pipes, Transactions
of the Institution of Civil Engineers of Ireland, Vol. XX, 161–207, 1891.
Marc, O., Hovius, N., and Meunier, P.: The mass balance of earthquakes and
earthquake sequences, Geophys. Res. Lett., 43, 3708–3716,
https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL068333, 2016.
Martin, L., Blard, P.-H., Balco, G., Lavé, J., Delunel, R., Lifton, N.,
and Laurent, V.: The CREp program and the ICE-D production rate calibration
database: A fully parameterizable and updated online tool to compute
cosmic-ray exposure ages, Quat. Geochronol., 38, 25–49,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quageo.2016.11.006, 2017.
Mason, K.: Indus floods and Shyok glaciers, Himalayan Journal, 1, 10–29,
1929.
Maurer, J., Schaefer, J., Rupper, S., and Corley, A.: Acceleration of ice
loss across the Himalayas over the past 40 years, Sci. Adv., 5,
eaav7266, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aav7266, 2019.
McAdoo, B. G., Quak, M., Gnyawali, K. R., Adhikari, B. R., Devkota, S., Rajbhandari, P. L., and Sudmeier-Rieux, K.: Roads and landslides in Nepal: how development affects environmental risk, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 18, 3203–3210, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-18-3203-2018, 2018.
Montgomery, D. R., Hallet, B., Yuping, L., Finnegan, N., Anders, A.,
Gillespie, A., and Greenberg, H. M.: Evidence for Holocene megafloods down
the Tsangpo River gorge, southeastern Tibet, Quaternary Res., 62, 201–207,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yqres.2004.06.008, 2004.
Nie, Y., Sheng, Y., Liu, Q., Liu, L., Liu, S., Zhang, Y., and Song, C.: A
regional-scale assessment of Himalayan glacial lake changes using satellite
observations from 1990 to 2015, Remote Sens. Environ., 189, 1–13,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2016.11.008, 2017.
O'Connor, J. E. and Beebee, R. A.: Floods from natural rock-material dams,
in: Megaflooding on Earth and Mars, edited by: Burr, D. M., Carling, P. A.,
and Baker, V. R., Cambridge University Press, New York, USA, 128–163,
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511635632.008, 2009
Owen, L. A.: Quaternary glaciation of the Himalaya and adjacent mountains,
in: Himalayan Weather and Climate and their Impact on the Environment,
edited by: Dimri, A., Bookhagen, B., Stoffel, M., and Yasunari, T.,
Springer, Cham, CH, 239–260,
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511635632.008, 2020.
Owen, L. A. and Benn, D. I.: Equilibrium-line altitudes of the Last Glacial
Maximum for the Himalaya and Tibet: an assessment and evaluation of results,
Quatern. Int., 138, 55–78, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2005.02.006,
2005.
Owen, L. A. and Dortch, J. M.: Nature and timing of Quaternary glaciation
in the Himalayan–Tibetan orogen, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 88, 14–54,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.11.016, 2014.
Pêcher, A.: The metamorphism in the central Himalaya, J. Metamorph.
Geol., 7, 31–41, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1525-1314.1989.tb00573.x, 1989.
Pierson, T. C.: Hyperconcentrated flow – transitional process between water
flow and debris flow, in: Debris-flow Hazards and Related Phenomena,
Springer Praxis Books, Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 159–202,
https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-27129-5_8, 2005.
Pierson, T. C. and Costa, J. E.: A rheologic classification of subaerial
sediment-water flows, Rev. Eng. Geol., 7, 1–12, 1987.
Pratt-Sitaula, B., Burbank, D. W., Heimsath, A., and Ojha, T.: Landscape
disequilibrium on 1000–10,000 year scales Marsyandi River, Nepal, central
Himalaya, Geomorphology, 58, 223–241,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2003.07.002, 2004.
Pratt-Sitaula, B., Burbank, D. W., Heimsath, A. M., Humphrey, N. F., Oskin,
M., and Putkonen, J.: Topographic control of asynchronous glacial advances:
A case study from Annapurna, Nepal, Geophys. Res. Lett., 38, L24502,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2011GL049940, 2011.
Rai, S.: Geology, geochemistry, and radiochronology of the Kathmandu and
Gosainkund crystalline nappes, central Nepal Himalaya, Journal of Nepal
Geological Society, 25, 135–155, 2001.
Reimer, P. J., Bard, E., Bayliss, A., Beck, J. W., Blackwell, P. G., Ramsey,
C. B., Buck, C. E., Cheng, H., Edwards, R. L., and Friedrich, M.: IntCal13
and Marine13 radiocarbon age calibration curves 0–50,000 years cal BP,
Radiocarbon, 55, 1869–1887, https://doi.org/10.2458/azu_js_rc.55.16947, 2013.
Richardson, S. D. and Reynolds, J. M.: An overview of glacial hazards in
the Himalayas, Quatern. Int., 65, 31–47,
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1040-6182(99)00035-X, 2000.
Roback, K., Clark, M. K., West, A. J., Zekkos, D., Li, G., Gallen, S. F.,
Chamlagain, D., and Godt, J. W.: The size, distribution, and mobility of
landslides caused by the 2015 Mw7. 8 Gorkha earthquake, Nepal,
Geomorphology, 301, 121–138, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2017.01.030,
2018.
Rosenwinkel, S., Landgraf, A., Schwanghart, W., Volkmer, F., Dzhumabaeva,
A., Merchel, S., Rugel, G., Preusser, F., and Korup, O.: Late Pleistocene
outburst floods from Issyk Kul, Kyrgyzstan?, Earth Surf. Proc. Land.,
42, 1535–1548, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.4109, 2017.
Runqiu, H.: Some catastrophic landslides since the twentieth century in the
southwest of China, Landslides, 6, 69–81,
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-009-0142-y, 2009.
Sapkota, S. N., Bollinger, L., Klinger, Y., Tapponnier, P., Gaudemer, Y.,
and Tiwari, D.: Primary surface ruptures of the great Himalayan earthquakes
in 1934 and 1255, Nat. Geosci., 6, 71–76, https://doi.org/10.1038/NGEO1669,
2013.
Sarkar, S., Prasad, S., Wilkes, H., Riedel, N., Stebich, M., Basavaiah, N.,
and Sachse, D.: Monsoon source shifts during the drying mid-Holocene:
Biomarker isotope based evidence from the core `monsoon zone'(CMZ) of India,
Quaternary Sci. Rev., 123, 144–157,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2015.06.020, 2015.
Schaefer, J. M., Oberholzer, P., Zhao, Z., Ivy-Ochs, S., Wieler, R., Baur,
H., Kubik, P. W., and Schlüchter, C.: Cosmogenic beryllium-10 and
neon-21 dating of late Pleistocene glaciations in Nyalam, monsoonal
Himalayas, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 27, 295–311,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2007.10.014, 2008.
Schwanghart, W., Bernhardt, A., Stolle, A., Hoelzmann, P., Adhikari, B. R.,
Andermann, C., Tofelde, S., Merchel, S., Rugel, G., and Fort, M.: Repeated
catastrophic valley infill following medieval earthquakes in the Nepal
Himalaya, Science, 351, 147–150, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aac9865,
2016a.
Schwanghart, W., Worni, R., Huggel, C., Stoffel, M., and Korup, O.:
Uncertainty in the Himalayan energy–water nexus: Estimating regional
exposure to glacial lake outburst floods, Environ. Res. Lett., 11, 074005,
https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/11/7/074005, 2016b.
Shang, Y., Yang, Z., Li, L., Liu, D. A., Liao, Q., and Wang, Y.: A
super-large landslide in Tibet in 2000: background, occurrence, disaster,
and origin, Geomorphology, 54, 225–243,
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-555X(02)00358-6, 2003.
Shiraiwa, T. and Watanabe, T.: Late Quaternary glacial fluctuations in the
Langtang valley, Nepal Himalaya, reconstructed by relative dating methods,
Arctic Alpine Res., 23, 404–416, 1991.
Shobe, C. M., Tucker, G. E., and Anderson, R. S.: Hillslope-derived blocks
retard river incision, Geophys. Res. Lett., 43, 5070–5078,
https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL069262, 2016.
Shobe, C. M., Tucker, G. E., and Rossi, M. W.: Variable-threshold behavior
in rivers arising from hillslope-derived blocks, J. Geophys. Res.-Ea.,
123, 1931–1957, https://doi.org/10.1029/2017JF004575, 2018.
Shrestha, A. B., Eriksson, M., Mool, P., Ghimire, P., Mishra, B., and
Khanal, N. R.: Glacial lake outburst flood risk assessment of Sun Koshi
basin, Nepal, Geomat. Nat. Haz. Risk, 1, 157–169,
https://doi.org/10.1080/19475701003668968, 2010.
Shrestha, S. B., Shrestha, J. N., and Sharma, S. R.: Geological map of
central Nepal, Department of Mines and Geology, Kathmandu, Nepal, 1986.
Shroder, J. F. J., Cornwell, K., and Khan, M. S.: Catastrophic break-out
floods in the western Himalaya, Pakistan, Geological Society of America
Annual Meeting Program with Abstracts, San Diego, CA, USA, Vol. 23, p. 87, 1991.
Stevens, V. L. and Avouac, J. P.: Millenary Mw>9.0 earthquakes
required by geodetic strain in the Himalaya, Geophys. Res. Lett., 43,
1118–1123, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015GL067336, 2016.
Stöcklin, J.: Geology of Nepal and its regional frame: Thirty-third
William Smith Lecture, J. Geol. Soc. London, 137, 1–34,
https://doi.org/10.1144/gsjgs.137.1.0001, 1980.
Stoffel, M., Tiranti, D., and Huggel, C.: Climate change impacts on mass
movements – case studies from the European Alps, Sci. Total Environ., 493,
1255–1266, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.02.102, 2014.
Stolle, A., Bernhardt, A., Schwanghart, W., Hoelzmann, P., Adhikari, B. R.,
Fort, M., and Korup, O.: Catastrophic valley fills record large Himalayan
earthquakes, Pokhara, Nepal, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 177, 88–103,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2017.10.015, 2017.
Thompson, L. G., Yao, T., Davis, M. E., Henderson, K. A., Mosley-Thompson,
E., Lin, P.-N., Beer, J., Synal, H.-A., Cole-Dai, J., and Bolzan, J. F.:
Tropical climate instability: The last glacial cycle from a Qinghai-Tibetan
ice core, Science, 276, 1821–1825,
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.276.5320.1821, 1997.
Turzewski, M. D., Huntington, K. W., and LeVeque, R. J.: The geomorphic
impact of outburst floods: Integrating observations and numerical
simulations of the 2000 Yigong flood, eastern Himalaya, J. Geophys.
Res.-Ea., 124, 1056–1079, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JF004778, 2019.
Upreti, B. N.: An overview of the stratigraphy and tectonics of the Nepal
Himalaya, J. Asian Earth Sci., 17, 577–606,
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1367-9120(99)00047-4, 1999.
Veh, G., Korup, O., von Specht, S., Roessner, S., and Walz, A.: Unchanged
frequency of moraine-dammed glacial lake outburst floods in the Himalaya,
Nat. Clim. Change, 9, 379, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-019-0437-5, 2019.
Vuichard, D. and Zimmermann, M.: The 1985 catastrophic drainage of a
moraine-dammed lake, Khumbu Himal, Nepal: cause and consequences, Mt. Res.
Dev., 7, 91–110, https://doi.org/10.2307/3673305, 1987.
Walder, J. S. and Costa, J. E.: Outburst floods from glacier-dammed lakes:
the effect of mode of lake drainage on flood magnitude, Earth Surf. Proc.
Land., 21, 701–723,
https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1096-9837(199608)21:8<701::AID-ESP615>3.0.CO;2-2, 1996.
Wang, W., Xiang, Y., Gao, Y., Lu, A., and Yao, T.: Rapid expansion of
glacial lakes caused by climate and glacier retreat in the Central
Himalayas, Hydrol. Process., 29, 859–874, https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.10199,
2015.
Wang, Z. Y., Qi, P., and Melching, C. S.: Fluvial hydraulics of
hyperconcentrated floods in Chinese rivers, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 34,
981–993, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.1789, 2009.
Wasson, R. J., Sundriyal, Y. P., Chaudhary, S., Jaiswal, M. K., Morthekai,
P., Sati, S. P., and Juyal, N.: A 1000-year history of large floods in the
Upper Ganga catchment, central Himalaya, India, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 77,
156–166, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.07.022, 2013.
Willett, S. D. and Brandon, M. T.: On steady states in mountain belts,
Geology, 30, 175–178, https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(2002)030<0175:OSSIMB>2.0.CO;2, 2002.
Wohl, E. E.: Mountain rivers revisited, Water resources monograph (19),
American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, USA, 2013.
Worni, R., Stoffel, M., Huggel, C., Volz, C., Casteller, A., and Luckman,
B.: Analysis and dynamic modeling of a moraine failure and glacier lake
outburst flood at Ventisquero Negro, Patagonian Andes (Argentina), J.
Hydrol., 444, 134–145, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2012.04.013, 2012.
Xu, D.: Characteristics of debris flow caused by outburst of glacial lake in
Boqu river, Xizang, China, 1981, GeoJournal, 17, 569–580, 1988.
Yamada, T. and Sharma, C. K.: Glacier lakes and outburst floods in the
Nepal Himalaya, IAHS-AISH P., 218, 319–330, 1993.
Yamanaka, H.: Radiocarbon ages of upper quaternary deposit in central Nepal and their geomorphological significance, Science Reports of the Tohoku University, 7th Series, Geography, 32, 46–60, 1982.
Ziegler, A. D., Wasson, R. J., Bhardwaj, A., Sundriyal, Y. P., Sati, S. P.,
Juyal, N., Nautiyal, V., Srivastava, P., Gillen, J., and Saklani, U.:
Pilgrims, progress, and the political economy of disaster preparedness – the
example of the 2013 Uttarakhand flood and Kedarnath disaster, Hydrol.
Process., 28, 5985–5990, https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.10349, 2014.
Short summary
Large boulders found in two Himalayan valleys show signs of long fluvial transport (>10 km). Paleo-discharges required to mobilize these boulders exceed typical monsoon discharges. Exposure dating shows that a cluster of these boulders was emplaced ca. 5 kyr ago. This period is coeval with a weakening of the Indian monsoon and glacier retreat in the area. We, therefore, suggest that glacier lake outburst floods are likely mechanisms that can explain these exceptional transport processes.
Large boulders found in two Himalayan valleys show signs of long fluvial transport (>10 km)....
