Articles | Volume 13, issue 1
https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-147-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-13-147-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
07 Feb 2025
Research article |
| 07 Feb 2025
| 07 Feb 2025
Geomorphic imprint of high-mountain floods: insights from the 2022 hydrological extreme across the upper Indus River catchment in the northwestern Himalayas
Abhishek Kashyap
Centre for Ocean, River, Atmosphere and Land Sciences (CORAL), Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, West Bengal 721302, India
Kristen L. Cook
IRD, ISTerre, Université Grenoble Alpes, 1381 Rue de la Piscine, 38610 Gières, France
Mukunda Dev Behera
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Centre for Ocean, River, Atmosphere and Land Sciences (CORAL), Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, West Bengal 721302, India
Related authors
Abhishek Kashyap, Mukunda Dev Behera, Anand Kumar Pandey, and Ankit Agarwal
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2022-533, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2022-533, 2022
Preprint archived
Short summary
Short summary
Bedrock landslides are currently spatially dispersed over a process of landscape evolution in the NW Himalayan river catchments. Our analysis indicates that the zones with slope range between 24–32°, topographic relief ranges between 800–1200 m, and elevation range between 1200–2400 m, are compatible with precipitation intensity ranges between 1500–3000 mm/year in the NW Himalayan river catchments, have the highest probability of frequently occurring landslides.
David Puhl, Jens M. Turowski, Christoff Andermann, Michael Dietze, Kristen L. Cook, Gen K. Li, and Basanta R. Adhikari
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-4202, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-4202, 2026
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Earth Surface Dynamics (ESurf).
Short summary
Short summary
Large earthquakes trigger widespread landslides that increase the amount of sediment delivered to rivers. We studied suspended sediment grain sizes in a major Himalayan river basin following the 2015 Gorkha Earthquake in Nepal. We found coarser suspended sediments near heavily affected areas during the first year after the earthquake, with the signal disappearing downstream. These findings improve our understanding of how far and for how long earthquakes influence river sediment transport.
Wolfgang Schwanghart, Ankit Agarwal, Kristen Cook, Ugur Ozturk, Roopam Shukla, and Sven Fuchs
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 24, 3291–3297, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-3291-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-3291-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The Himalayan landscape is particularly susceptible to extreme events, which interfere with increasing populations and the expansion of settlements and infrastructure. This preface introduces and summarizes the nine papers that are part of the special issue,
Estimating and predicting natural hazards and vulnerabilities in the Himalayan region.
Fabian Walter, Elias Hodel, Erik S. Mannerfelt, Kristen Cook, Michael Dietze, Livia Estermann, Michaela Wenner, Daniel Farinotti, Martin Fengler, Lukas Hammerschmidt, Flavia Hänsli, Jacob Hirschberg, Brian McArdell, and Peter Molnar
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 4011–4018, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-4011-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-4011-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Debris flows are dangerous sediment–water mixtures in steep terrain. Their formation takes place in poorly accessible terrain where instrumentation cannot be installed. Here we propose to monitor such source terrain with an autonomous drone for mapping sediments which were left behind by debris flows or may contribute to future events. Short flight intervals elucidate changes of such sediments, providing important information for landscape evolution and the likelihood of future debris flows.
Abhishek Kashyap, Mukunda Dev Behera, Anand Kumar Pandey, and Ankit Agarwal
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2022-533, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2022-533, 2022
Preprint archived
Short summary
Short summary
Bedrock landslides are currently spatially dispersed over a process of landscape evolution in the NW Himalayan river catchments. Our analysis indicates that the zones with slope range between 24–32°, topographic relief ranges between 800–1200 m, and elevation range between 1200–2400 m, are compatible with precipitation intensity ranges between 1500–3000 mm/year in the NW Himalayan river catchments, have the highest probability of frequently occurring landslides.
Aaron Bufe, Kristen L. Cook, Albert Galy, Hella Wittmann, and Niels Hovius
Earth Surf. Dynam., 10, 513–530, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-10-513-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-10-513-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Erosion modulates Earth's carbon cycle by exposing a variety of lithologies to chemical weathering. We measured water chemistry in streams on the eastern Tibetan Plateau that drain either metasedimentary or granitoid rocks. With increasing erosion, weathering shifts from being a CO2 sink to being a CO2 source for both lithologies. However, metasedimentary rocks typically weather 2–10 times faster than granitoids, with implications for the role of lithology in modulating the carbon cycle.
Michael Dietze, Rainer Bell, Ugur Ozturk, Kristen L. Cook, Christoff Andermann, Alexander R. Beer, Bodo Damm, Ana Lucia, Felix S. Fauer, Katrin M. Nissen, Tobias Sieg, and Annegret H. Thieken
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 1845–1856, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-1845-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-1845-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The flood that hit Europe in July 2021, specifically the Eifel, Germany, was more than a lot of fast-flowing water. The heavy rain that fell during the 3 d before also caused the slope to fail, recruited tree trunks that clogged bridges, and routed debris across the landscape. Especially in the upper parts of the catchments the flood was able to gain momentum. Here, we discuss how different landscape elements interacted and highlight the challenges of holistic future flood anticipation.
Cited articles
Adams, B. A., Whipple, K. X., Forte, A. M., Heimsath, A. M., and Hodges, K. V.: Climate controls on erosion in tectonically active landscapes, Sci. Adv., 6, eaaz3166, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aaz3166, 2020.
Anderson, R. G. and Goulden, M. L.: Relationships between climate, vegetation, and energy exchange across a montane gradient, J. Geophys. Res., 116, G01026, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JG001476, 2011.
Archer, D.: Hydrological implications of spatial and altitudinal variation in temperature in the upper Indus basin, Hydrol. Res., 35, 209–222, https://doi.org/10.2166/nh.2004.0015, 2004.
Bai, L., Shi, C., Li, L., Yang, Y., and Wu, J.: Accuracy of CHIRPS Satellite-Rainfall Products over Mainland China, Remote Sens., 10, 362, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10030362, 2018.
Bawa, N., Jain, V., Shekhar, S., Kumar, N., and Jyani, V.: Controls on morphological variability and role of stream power distribution pattern, Yamuna River, western India, Geomorphology, 227, 60–72, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2014.05.016, 2014.
Benito, G., Macklin, M. G., Panin, A., Rossato, S., Fontana, A., Jones, A. F., Machado, M. J., Matlakhova, E., Mozzi, P., and Zielhofer, C.: Recurring flood distribution patterns related to short-term Holocene climatic variability, Sci. Rep., 5, 16398, https://doi.org/10.1038/srep16398, 2015.
Bhutto, F.: The west is ignoring Pakistan's super-floods. Heed this warning: tomorrow it will be you, 9 September 2022, The Guardian, https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2022/sep/08/pakistan-floods-climate-crisis (last access: 9 September 2022), 2022.
Bookhagen, B. and Burbank, D. W.: Topography, relief, and TRMM-derived rainfall variations along the Himalaya, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, 2006GL026037, https://doi.org/10.1029/2006GL026037, 2006.
Bookhagen, B. and Burbank, D. W.: Toward a complete Himalayan hydrological budget: Spatiotemporal distribution of snowmelt and rainfall and their impact on river discharge, J. Geophys. Res., 115, 2009JF001426, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JF001426, 2010.
Bookhagen, B. and Strecker, M. R.: Spatiotemporal trends in erosion rates across a pronounced rainfall gradient: Examples from the southern Central Andes, Earth Planet. Sc. Lett., 327–328, 97–110, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2012.02.005, 2012.
Bookhagen, B., Thiede, R. C., and Strecker, M. R.: Abnormal monsoon years and their control on erosion and sediment flux in the high, arid northwest Himalaya, Earth Planet. Sc. Lett., 231, 131–146, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2004.11.014, 2005a.
Bookhagen, B., Thiede, R. C., and Strecker, M. R.: Late Quaternary intensified monsoon phases control landscape evolution in the northwest Himalaya, Geology, 33, 149, https://doi.org/10.1130/G20982.1, 2005b.
Bovy, B., Braun, J., and Demoulin, A.: A new numerical framework for simulating the control of weather and climate on the evolution of soil-mantled hillslopes, Geomorphology, 263, 99–112, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2016.03.016, 2016.
Breiman, L.: Random Forests, Mach. Learn., 45, 5–32, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010933404324, 2001.
Burbank, D. W. and Anderson, R. S.: Tectonic geomorphology, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-1-4443-3887-4, 2011.
Butler, R. W. H.: Tectonic evolution of the Himalayan syntaxes: the view from Nanga Parbat, SP, 483, 215–254, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP483.5, 2019.
Clift, P. D. and Jonell, T. N.: Monsoon controls on sediment generation and transport: Mass budget and provenance constraints from the Indus River catchment, delta and submarine fan over tectonic and multimillennial timescales, Earth-Sci. Rev., 220, 103682, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103682, 2021.
Cook, K. L., Andermann, C., Gimbert, F., Adhikari, B. R., and Hovius, N.: Glacial lake outburst floods as drivers of fluvial erosion in the Himalaya, Science, 362, 53–57, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aat4981, 2018.
C3S – Copernicus Climate Change Service: ERA5-Land: Post-processed daily hydroclimatic statistics from 1950 to present, C3S [data set], https://cds.climate.copernicus.eu/stac-browser/collections/derived-era5-land-daily-statistics (last access: 1 December 2022), 2017.
Delaney, I., Anderson, L., and Herman, F.: Modeling the spatially distributed nature of subglacial sediment transport and erosion, Earth Surf. Dynam., 11, 663–680, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-663-2023, 2023.
Dimri, A. P., Niyogi, D., Barros, A. P., Ridley, J., Mohanty, U. C., Yasunari, T., and Sikka, D. R.: Western Disturbances: A review, Rev. Geophys., 53, 225–246, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014RG000460, 2015.
Dimri, A. P., Yasunari, T., Kotlia, B. S., Mohanty, U. C., and Sikka, D. R.: Indian winter monsoon: Present and past, Earth-Sci. Rev., 163, 297–322, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2016.10.008, 2016.
Dimri, A. P., Chevuturi, A., Niyogi, D., Thayyen, R. J., Ray, K., Tripathi, S. N., Pandey, A. K., and Mohanty, U. C.: Cloudbursts in Indian Himalayas: A review, Earth-Sci. Rev., 168, 1–23, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.03.006, 2017.
Farinotti, D., Immerzeel, W. W., De Kok, R. J., Quincey, D. J., and Dehecq, A.: Manifestations and mechanisms of the Karakoram glacier Anomaly, Nat. Geosci., 13, 8–16, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-019-0513-5, 2020.
Forsythe, N., Fowler, H. J., Li, X.-F., Blenkinsop, S., and Pritchard, D.: Karakoram temperature and glacial melt driven by regional atmospheric circulation variability, Nat. Clim. Change, 7, 664–670, https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate3361, 2017.
Funk, C., Peterson, P., Landsfeld, M., Pedreros, D., Verdin, J., Shukla, S., Husak, G., Rowland, J., Harrison, L., Hoell, A., and Michaelsen, J.: The climate hazards infrared precipitation with stations – a new environmental record for monitoring extremes, Sci. Data, 2, 150066, https://doi.org/10.1038/sdata.2015.66, 2015.
Gao, F., Zhang, Y., Ren, X., Yao, Y., Hao, Z., and Cai, W.: Evaluation of CHIRPS and its application for drought monitoring over the Haihe River Basin, China, Nat. Hazards, 92, 155–172, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-018-3196-0, 2018.
Godard, V. and Tucker, G. E.: Influence of Climate-Forcing Frequency on Hillslope Response, Geophysical Res. Lett., 48, e2021GL094305, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GL094305, 2021.
Goodbred, S. L., Kuehl, S. A., Steckler, M. S., and Sarker, M. H.: Controls on facies distribution and stratigraphic preservation in the Ganges–Brahmaputra delta sequence, Sediment. Geol., 155, 301–316, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0037-0738(02)00184-7, 2003.
Hack, J. T.: Stream-profile analysis and stream-gradient index, Journal of Research of the US Geological Survey, 1, 421–429, 1973.
Hewitt, K.: Tributary glacier surges: an exceptional concentration at Panmah Glacier, Karakoram Himalaya, J. Glaciol., 53, 181–188, https://doi.org/10.3189/172756507782202829, 2007.
Hewitt, K.: Catastrophic rock slope failures and late Quaternary developments in the Nanga Parbat–Haramosh Massif, Upper Indus basin, northern Pakistan, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 28, 1055–1069, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2008.12.019, 2009.
Houze, R. A., Rasmussen, K. L., Medina, S., Brodzik, S. R., and Romatschke, U.: Anomalous Atmospheric Events Leading to the Summer 2010 Floods in Pakistan, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 92, 291–298, https://doi.org/10.1175/2010BAMS3173.1, 2011.
Jaiswara, N. K., Kotluri, S. K., Pandey, A. K., and Pandey, P.: Transient basin as indicator of tectonic expressions in bedrock landscape: Approach based on MATLAB geomorphic tool (Transient-profiler), Geomorphology, 346, 106853, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2019.106853, 2019.
Jaiswara, N. K., Kotluri, S. K., Pandey, P., and Pandey, A. K.: MATLAB functions for extracting hypsometry, stream-length gradient index, steepness index, chi gradient of channel and swath profiles from digital elevation model (DEM) and other spatial data for landscape characterisation, Appl. Comput. Geosci., 7, 100033, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acags.2020.100033, 2020.
Jones, B.: How melting glaciers fueled Pakistan's fatal floods, 30 August 2022, https://www.vox.com/science-and-health/2022/8/30/23327341/pakistan-flooding-monsoon-melting-glaciers-climate-change (last access: 30 August 2022), 2022.
Joshi, S. K., Kumar, S., Sinha, R., Rai, S. P., Khobragade, S., and Rao, M. S.: Identifying moisture transport pathways for north-west India, Geol. J., 58, 4428–4440, https://doi.org/10.1002/gj.4759, 2023.
Kapnick, S. B., Delworth, T. L., Ashfaq, M., Malyshev, S., and Milly, P. C. D.: Snowfall less sensitive to warming in Karakoram than in Himalayas due to a unique seasonal cycle, Nat. Geosci., 7, 834–840, https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo2269, 2014.
Karmouche, S., Galytska, E., Runge, J., Meehl, G. A., Phillips, A. S., Weigel, K., and Eyring, V.: Regime-oriented causal model evaluation of Atlantic–Pacific teleconnections in CMIP6, Earth Syst. Dynam., 14, 309–344, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-14-309-2023, 2023.
Kashyap, A. and Behera, M. D.: The influence of landslide morphology on erosion rate variability across western Himalayan catchments: Role of westerlies and summer monsoon interaction in the landscape characterization, Geol. J., 59, 1112–1125, https://doi.org/10.1002/gj.4913, 2024.
Kashyap, A., Behera, M. D., and Pradhan, B.: Differential surface uplift and knickpoint evolution along the transient Teesta river in the eastern Himalayas, J. Asian Earth Sci., 260, 105974, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2023.105974, 2024.
Katsanos, D., Retalis, A., and Michaelides, S.: Validation of a high-resolution precipitation database (CHIRPS) over Cyprus for a 30-year period, Atmos. Res., 169, 459–464, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2015.05.015, 2016.
Kaushal, R. K., Sarkar, A., Mishra, K., Sinha, R., Nepal, S., and Jain, V.: Spatio-temporal variability in stream power distribution in the Upper Kosi River basin, Central Himalaya: Controls and geomorphic implications, Geomorphology, 350, 106888, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2019.106888, 2020.
Khokhar, M. N.: Rich countries caused Pakistan's catastrophic flooding. Their response? Inertia and apathy, The Guardian, https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2022/sep/05/rich-countries-pakistan-flooding-climate-crisis-cop27 (last access: 5 September 2022), 2022.
Kirby, E. and Whipple, K. X.: Expression of active tectonics in erosional landscapes, J. Struct. Geol., 44, 54–75, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2012.07.009, 2012.
Knox, J. C.: Sensitivity of modern and Holocene floods to climate change, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 19, 439–457, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-3791(99)00074-8, 2000.
Koons, P., Zeitler, P., Chamberlain, C., Craw, D., and Meltzer, A.: Mechanical links between erosion and metamorphism in Nanga Parbat, Pakistan Himalaya, Am. J. Sci., 302, 749–773, 2002.
Koons, P. O., Zeitler, P., and Hallet, B.: Tectonic aneurysms and mountain building, Treat. Geomorphol., 5, 318–349, 2013.
Korup, O.: Earth's portfolio of extreme sediment transport events, Earth-Sci. Rev., 112, 115–125, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2012.02.006, 2012.
Korup, O. and Montgomery, D. R.: Tibetan plateau river incision inhibited by glacial stabilization of the Tsangpo gorge, Nature, 455, 786–789, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature07322, 2008.
Korup, O., Montgomery, D. R., and Hewitt, K.: Glacier and landslide feedbacks to topographic relief in the Himalayan syntaxes, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 107, 5317–5322, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0907531107, 2010a.
Korup, O., Densmore, A. L., and Schlunegger, F.: The role of landslides in mountain range evolution, Geomorphology, 120, 77–90, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2009.09.017, 2010b.
Kretschmer, M., Runge, J., and Coumou, D.: Early prediction of extreme stratospheric polar vortex states based on causal precursors, Geophys. Res. Lett., 44, 8592–8600, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017GL074696, 2017.
Krich, C., Runge, J., Miralles, D. G., Migliavacca, M., Perez-Priego, O., El-Madany, T., Carrara, A., and Mahecha, M. D.: Estimating causal networks in biosphere–atmosphere interaction with the PCMCI approach, Biogeosciences, 17, 1033–1061, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-1033-2020, 2020.
Leland, J., Reid, M. R., Burbank, D. W., Finkel, R., and Caffee, M.: Incision and differential bedrock uplift along the Indus River near Nanga Parbat, Pakistan Himalaya, from 10Be and 26Al exposure age dating of bedrock straths, Earth Planet. Sc. Lett., 154, 93–107, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0012-821X(97)00171-4, 1998.
Leonard, J. S., Whipple, K. X., and Heimsath, A. M.: Isolating climatic, tectonic, and lithologic controls on mountain landscape evolution, Sci. Adv., 9, eadd8915, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.add8915, 2023.
Leonard, J. S., Whipple, K. X., and Heimsath, A. M.: Controls on topography and erosion of the north-central Andes, Geology, 52, 153–158, https://doi.org/10.1130/G51618.1, 2024.
Liu, P., Li, L., Guo, S., Xiong, L., Zhang, W., Zhang, J., and Xu, C.-Y.: Optimal design of seasonal flood limited water levels and its application for the Three Gorges Reservoir, J. Hydrol., 527, 1045–1053, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2015.05.055, 2015.
Ma, Y., Hu, X., Chen, Y., Hu, Z., Feng, T., and Feng, G.: Different Characteristics and Drivers of the Extraordinary Pakistan Rainfall in July and August 2022, Remote Sens., 15, 2311, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15092311, 2023.
Nanditha, J. S., Kushwaha, A. P., Singh, R., Malik, I., Solanki, H., Chuphal, D. S., Dangar, S., Mahto, S. S., Vegad, U., and Mishra, V.: The Pakistan Flood of August 2022: Causes and Implications, Earth's Future, 11, e2022EF003230, https://doi.org/10.1029/2022EF003230, 2023.
NASA: MODIS Daily Datasets, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center [data set], https://modis.gsfc.nasa.gov/data/dataprod/ (last access: 10 February 2023), 2000.
Nawaz, M., Iqbal, M. F., and Mahmood, I.: Validation of CHIRPS satellite-based precipitation dataset over Pakistan, Atmos. Res., 248, 105289, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2020.105289, 2021.
NDMA: NDMA monsoon 2022 daily situation, report no. 093, NDMA, https://reliefweb.int/report/pakistan/ndma-monsoon-2022-daily-situation-report-no-93-dated-14th (last access: 15 September 2022), 2022.
Nowack, P., Runge, J., Eyring, V., and Haigh, J. D.: Causal networks for climate model evaluation and constrained projections, Nat. Commun., 11, 1415, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-15195-y, 2020.
Olen, S. M., Bookhagen, B., and Strecker, M. R.: Role of climate and vegetation density in modulating denudation rates in the Himalaya, Earth Planet. Sc. Lett., 445, 57–67, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2016.03.047, 2016.
Open Topography: High-resolution topography data and tools, https://opentopography.org (last access: 5 December 2022), 2025.
Otto, F. E. L., Zachariah, M., Saeed, F., Siddiqi, A., Kamil, S., Mushtaq, H., Arulalan, T., AchutaRao, K., Chaithra, S. T., Barnes, C., Philip, S., Kew, S., Vautard, R., Koren, G., Pinto, I., Wolski, P., Vahlberg, M., Singh, R., Arrighi, J., Van Aalst, M., Thalheimer, L., Raju, E., Li, S., Yang, W., Harrington, L. J., and Clarke, B.: Climate change increased extreme monsoon rainfall, flooding highly vulnerable communities in Pakistan, Environ. Res.: Clim., 2, 025001, https://doi.org/10.1088/2752-5295/acbfd5, 2023.
Panda, S., Kumar, A., Das, S., Devrani, R., Rai, S., Prakash, K., and Srivastava, P.: Chronology and sediment provenance of extreme floods of Siang River (Tsangpo-Brahmaputra River valley), northeast Himalaya, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 45, 2495–2511, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.4893, 2020.
Paredes-Trejo, F. J., Barbosa, H. A., and Lakshmi Kumar, T. V.: Validating CHIRPS-based satellite precipitation estimates in Northeast Brazil, J. Arid Environ., 139, 26–40, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2016.12.009, 2017.
Rasmussen, K. L. and Houze, R. A.: A Flash-Flooding Storm at the Steep Edge of High Terrain: Disaster in the Himalayas, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 93, 1713–1724, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-11-00236.1, 2012.
Ray, K., Pandey, P., Pandey, C., Dimri, A. P., and Kishore, K.: On the recent floods in India, Curr. Sci., 117, 204–218, 2019.
Rossi, M. W., Whipple, K. X., and Vivoni, E. R.: Precipitation and evapotranspiration controls on daily runoff variability in the contiguous United States and Puerto Rico, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 121, 128–145, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JF003446, 2016.
Runge, J.: Causal network reconstruction from time series: From theoretical assumptions to practical estimation, Chaos, 28, 075310, https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5025050, 2018.
Runge, J.: tigramite, GitHub [code], https://github.com/jakobrunge/tigramite (last access: 4 February 2025), 2025.
Runge, J., Gao, P., Garcin, F., and Faltings, B.: Churn prediction for high-value players in casual social games, in: 2014 IEEE Conference on Computational Intelligence and Games (CIG), 26–29 August 2014, Dortmund, Germany, 1–8, https://doi.org/10.1109/CIG.2014.6932875, 2014.
Runge, J., Nowack, P., Kretschmer, M., Flaxman, S., and Sejdinovic, D.: Detecting and quantifying causal associations in large nonlinear time series datasets, Sci. Adv., 5, eaau4996, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aau4996, 2019a.
Runge, J., Bathiany, S., Bollt, E., Camps-Valls, G., Coumou, D., Deyle, E., Glymour, C., Kretschmer, M., Mahecha, M. D., Muñoz-Marí, J., Van Nes, E. H., Peters, J., Quax, R., Reichstein, M., Scheffer, M., Schölkopf, B., Spirtes, P., Sugihara, G., Sun, J., Zhang, K., and Zscheischler, J.: Inferring causation from time series in Earth system sciences, Nat. Commun., 10, 2553, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-10105-3, 2019b.
Runge, J., Gerhardus, A., Varando, G., Eyring, V., and Camps-Valls, G.: Causal inference for time series, Nat. Rev. Earth Environ., 4, 487–505, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-023-00431-y, 2023.
Scheip, C. M. and Wegmann, K. W.: HazMapper: a global open-source natural hazard mapping application in Google Earth Engine, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 21, 1495–1511, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-21-1495-2021, 2021.
Scherler, D., Bookhagen, B., and Strecker, M. R.: Spatially variable response of Himalayan glaciers to climate change affected by debris cover, Nat. Geosci., 4, 156–159, https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1068, 2011.
Schneider, J. M., Turowski, J. M., Rickenmann, D., Hegglin, R., Arrigo, S., Mao, L., and Kirchner, J. W.: Scaling relationships between bed load volumes, transport distances, and stream power in steep mountain channels: Tracer Erlenbach, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 119, 533–549, https://doi.org/10.1002/2013JF002874, 2014.
Schumm, S. A., Dumont, J. F., and Holbrook, J. M.: Active tectonics and alluvial rivers, in: Vol. 276, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, ISBN 9780521890588, 2000.
Schwanghart, W. and Scherler, D.: Short Communication: TopoToolbox 2 – MATLAB-based software for topographic analysis and modeling in Earth surface sciences, Earth Surf. Dynam., 2, 1–7, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2-1-2014, 2014.
Shahid, M., Rahman, K. U., Haider, S., Gabriel, H. F., Khan, A. J., Pham, Q. B., Mohammadi, B., Linh, N. T. T., and Anh, D. T.: Assessing the potential and hydrological usefulness of the CHIRPS precipitation dataset over a complex topography in Pakistan, Hydrolog. Sci. J., 66, 1664–1684, https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2021.1957476, 2021.
Shahzad, F., Mahmood, S. A., and Gloaguen, R.: Drainage network and lineament analysis: An approach for Potwar Plateau (Northern Pakistan), J. Mt. Sci., 6, 14–24, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-009-0206-4, 2009.
Sharif, M., Archer, D. R., Fowler, H. J., and Forsythe, N.: Trends in timing and magnitude of flow in the Upper Indus Basin, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 17, 1503–1516, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-17-1503-2013, 2013.
Sharma, S., Shukla, A. D., Bartarya, S. K., Marh, B. S., and Juyal, N.: The Holocene floods and their affinity to climatic variability in the western Himalaya, India, Geomorphology, 290, 317–334, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2017.04.030, 2017.
Sharma, S., Sati, S. P., Basavaiah, N., Pandey, S., Sundriyal, Y. P., Rana, N., Singh, P., Pradhan, S., Shukla, A. D., Bhushan, R., Bhatt, R., and Juyal, N.: Mid to late Holocene climate variability, forest fires and floods entwined with human occupation in the upper Ganga catchment, India, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 293, 107725, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2022.107725, 2022.
Sinha, R., Mohanta, H., Jain, V., and Tandon, S. K.: Geomorphic diversity as a river management tool and its application to the Ganga River, India, River Res. Appl., 33, 1156–1176, https://doi.org/10.1002/rra.3154, 2017.
Snyder, N. P., Whipple, K. X., Tucker, G. E., and Merritts, D. J.: Importance of a stochastic distribution of floods and erosion thresholds in the bedrock river incision problem, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 2001JB001655, https://doi.org/10.1029/2001JB001655, 2003.
Srivastava, P., Kumar, A., Chaudhary, S., Meena, N., Sundriyal, Y. P., Rawat, S., Rana, N., Perumal, R. J., Bisht, P., Sharma, D., Agnihotri, R., Bagri, D. S., Juyal, N., Wasson, R. J., and Ziegler, A. D.: Paleofloods records in Himalaya, Geomorphology, 284, 17–30, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2016.12.011, 2017.
Starke, J., Ehlers, T. A., and Schaller, M.: Latitudinal effect of vegetation on erosion rates identified along western South America, Science, 367, 1358–1361, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaz0840, 2020.
Tibau, X.-A., Reimers, C., Gerhardus, A., Denzler, J., Eyring, V., and Runge, J.: A spatiotemporal stochastic climate model for benchmarking causal discovery methods for teleconnections, Environ. Data Sci., 1, e12, https://doi.org/10.1017/eds.2022.11, 2022.
Ullah, W., Wang, G., Lou, D., Ullah, S., Bhatti, A. S., Ullah, S., Karim, A., Hagan, D. F. T., and Ali, G.: Large-scale atmospheric circulation patterns associated with extreme monsoon precipitation in Pakistan during 1981–2018, Atmos. Res., 253, 105489, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2021.105489, 2021.
Vellore, R. K., Kaplan, M. L., Krishnan, R., Lewis, J. M., Sabade, S., Deshpande, N., Singh, B. B., Madhura, R. K., and Rama Rao, M. V. S.: Monsoon-extratropical circulation interactions in Himalayan extreme rainfall, Clim. Dynam., 46, 3517–3546, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-015-2784-x, 2016.
Wang, N., Zeng, X.-M., Guo, W.-D., Chen, C., You, W., Zheng, Y., and Zhu, J.: Quantitative diagnosis of moisture sources and transport pathways for summer precipitation over the mid-lower Yangtze River Basin, J. Hydrol., 559, 252–265, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2018.02.003, 2018.
Whipple, K. X., Hancock, G. S., and Anderson, R. S.: River incision into bedrock: Mechanics and relative efficacy of plucking, abrasion, and cavitation, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 112, 490–503, https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(2000)112<490:RIIBMA>2.0.CO;2, 2000.
Wobus, C., Whipple, K. X., Kirby, E., Snyder, N., Johnson, J., Spyropolou, K., Crosby, B., and Sheehan, D.: Tectonics from topography: Procedures, promise, and pitfalls, in: Tectonics, Climate, and Landscape Evolution, Geological Society of America, https://doi.org/10.1130/2006.2398(04), 2006.
Wolfensberger, D., Gabella, M., Boscacci, M., Germann, U., and Berne, A.: RainForest: a random forest algorithm for quantitative precipitation estimation over Switzerland, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 14, 3169–3193, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-3169-2021, 2021.
Wu, K., Liu, S., Jiang, Z., Liu, Q., Zhu, Y., Yi, Y., Xie, F., Ahmad Tahir, A., and Saifullah, M.: Quantification of glacier mass budgets in the Karakoram region of Upper Indus Basin during the early twenty-first century, J. Hydrol., 603, 127095, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2021.127095, 2021.
Zeitler, P. K., Koons, P. O., Bishop, M. P., Chamberlain, C. P., Craw, D., Edwards, M. A., Hamidullah, S., Jan, M. Q., Khan, M. A., Khattak, M. U. K., Kidd, W. S. F., Mackie, R. L., Meltzer, A. S., Park, S. K., Pecher, A., Poage, M. A., Sarker, G., Schneider, D. A., Seeber, L., and Shroder, J. F.: Crustal reworking at Nanga Parbat, Pakistan: Metamorphic consequences of thermal-mechanical coupling facilitated by erosion, Tectonics, 20, 712–728, https://doi.org/10.1029/2000TC001243, 2001.
Zeitler, P. K., Meltzer, A. S., Brown, L., Kidd, W. S., Lim, C., and Enkelmann, E.: Tectonics and topographic evolution of Namche Barwa and the easternmost Lhasa block, Tibet, in: Toward an Improved Understanding of Uplift Mechanisms and the Elevation History of the Tibetan Plateau, Geological Society of America Special Papers, Geological Society of America, 23–58, https://doi.org/10.1130/2014.2507(02), 2014.
Short summary
Short-lived, high-magnitude flood events across high mountain regions leave substantial geomorphic imprints, which are frequently triggered by excess precipitation, glacial lake outbursts, and natural dam breaches. These catastrophic floods highlight the importance of understanding the complex interaction between climatic, hydrological, and geological forces in bedrock catchments. Extreme floods can have long-term geomorphic consequences on river morphology and fluvial processes.
Short-lived, high-magnitude flood events across high mountain regions leave substantial...
