Research article 02 Jun 2020
Research article | 02 Jun 2020
Computing water flow through complex landscapes – Part 2: Finding hierarchies in depressions and morphological segmentations
Richard Barnes et al.
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Richard Barnes, Kerry L. Callaghan, and Andrew D. Wickert
Earth Surf. Dynam., 9, 105–121, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-9-105-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-9-105-2021, 2021
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Existing ways of modeling the flow of water amongst landscape depressions such as swamps and lakes take a long time to run. However, as our previous work explains, depressions can be quickly organized into a data structure – the depression hierarchy. This paper explains how the depression hierarchy can be used to quickly simulate the realistic filling of depressions including how they spill over into each other and, if they become full enough, how they merge into one another.
Richard Barnes, Kerry L. Callaghan, and Andrew D. Wickert
Earth Surf. Dynam., 9, 105–121, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-9-105-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-9-105-2021, 2021
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Existing ways of modeling the flow of water amongst landscape depressions such as swamps and lakes take a long time to run. However, as our previous work explains, depressions can be quickly organized into a data structure – the depression hierarchy. This paper explains how the depression hierarchy can be used to quickly simulate the realistic filling of depressions including how they spill over into each other and, if they become full enough, how they merge into one another.
Maximillian Van Wyk de Vries and Andrew D. Wickert
The Cryosphere Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-2020-204, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-2020-204, 2020
Revised manuscript under review for TC
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Sara Savi, Stefanie Tofelde, Andrew D. Wickert, Aaron Bufe, Taylor F. Schildgen, and Manfred R. Strecker
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 303–322, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-303-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-303-2020, 2020
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Fluvial deposits record changes in water and sediment supply. As such, they are often used to reconstruct the tectonic or climatic history of a basin. In this study we used an experimental setting to analyze how fluvial deposits register changes in water or sediment supply at a confluence zone. We provide a new conceptual framework that may help understanding the construction of these deposits under different forcings conditions, information crucial to correctly inferring the history of a basin.
Kerry L. Callaghan and Andrew D. Wickert
Earth Surf. Dynam., 7, 737–753, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-737-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-737-2019, 2019
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Lakes and swales are real landscape features but are generally treated as data errors when calculating water flow across a surface. This is a problem because depressions can store water and fragment drainage networks. Until now, there has been no good generalized approach to calculate which depressions fill and overflow and which do not. We addressed this problem by simulating runoff flow across a landscape, selectively flooding depressions and more realistically connecting lakes and rivers.
Stefanie Tofelde, Sara Savi, Andrew D. Wickert, Aaron Bufe, and Taylor F. Schildgen
Earth Surf. Dynam., 7, 609–631, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-609-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-609-2019, 2019
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We performed seven physical experiments to explore terrace formation and sediment export from a braided alluvial river system that is perturbed by changes in water discharge, sediment supply, or base level. Each perturbation differently affects (1) the geometry of terraces and channels, (2) the timing of terrace formation, and (3) the transient response of sediment discharge. Our findings provide guidelines for interpreting fill terraces and sediment export from fluvial systems.
Andrew D. Wickert, Chad T. Sandell, Bobby Schulz, and Gene-Hua Crystal Ng
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 2065–2076, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-2065-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-2065-2019, 2019
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Measuring Earth's changing environment is a critical part of natural science, but to date most of the equipment to do so is expensive, proprietary, and difficult to customize. We addressed this challenge by developing and deploying the ALog, a low-power, lightweight, Arduino-compatible data logger. We present our hardware schematics and layouts, as well as our customizable code library that operates the ALog and helps users to link it to off-the-shelf sensors.
Leila Saberi, Rachel T. McLaughlin, G.-H. Crystal Ng, Jeff La Frenierre, Andrew D. Wickert, Michel Baraer, Wei Zhi, Li Li, and Bryan G. Mark
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The relationship among glacier melt, groundwater, and streamflow remains highly uncertain, especially in tropical glacierized watersheds in response to climate. We implemented a multi-method approach and found that melt contribution varies considerably and may drive streamflow variability at hourly to multi-year timescales, rather than buffer it, as commonly thought. Some of the melt contribution occurs through groundwater pathways, resulting in longer timescale interactions with streamflow.
Andrew D. Wickert and Taylor F. Schildgen
Earth Surf. Dynam., 7, 17–43, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-17-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-17-2019, 2019
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Rivers can raise or lower their beds by depositing or eroding sediments. We combine equations for flow, channel/valley geometry, and gravel transport to learn how climate and tectonics shape down-valley profiles of river-bed elevation. Rivers steepen when they receive more sediment (relative to water) and become straighter with tectonic uplift. Weathering and breakdown of gravel is needed to produce gradually widening river channels with concave-up profiles that are often observed in the field.
G.-H. Crystal Ng, Andrew D. Wickert, Lauren D. Somers, Leila Saberi, Collin Cronkite-Ratcliff, Richard G. Niswonger, and Jeffrey M. McKenzie
Geosci. Model Dev., 11, 4755–4777, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-11-4755-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-11-4755-2018, 2018
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The profound importance of water has led to the development of increasingly complex hydrological models. However, implementing these models is usually time-consuming and requires specialized expertise, stymieing their widespread use to support science-driven decision-making. In response, we have developed GSFLOW–GRASS, a robust and comprehensive set of software tools that can be readily used to set up and execute GSFLOW, the U.S. Geological Survey's coupled groundwater–surface-water flow model.
Andrew D. Wickert
Earth Surf. Dynam., 4, 831–869, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-831-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-831-2016, 2016
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The ice sheets that once spread across northern North America dramatically changed the drainage basin areas and discharges of rivers across the continent. As these ice sheets retreated, starting around 19 500 years ago, they sent meltwater to the oceans, influencing climate and building a geologic record of deglaciation. This record can be used to evaluate ice-sheet reconstructions and build an improved history and understanding of past ice-sheet collapse across North America.
A. D. Wickert
Geosci. Model Dev., 9, 997–1017, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-9-997-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-9-997-2016, 2016
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Earth's lithosphere bends beneath surface loads, such as ice, sediments, and mountain belts. The pattern of this bending, or flexural isostatic response, is a function of both the loads and the spatially variable strength of the lithosphere. gFlex is an easy-to-use program to calculate flexural isostastic response, and may be used to better understand how ice sheets, glaciers, large lakes, sedimentary basins, volcanoes, and other surface loads interact with the solid Earth.
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Nikos Theodoratos, Hansjörg Seybold, and James W. Kirchner
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Gregory E. Tucker, Scott W. McCoy, and Daniel E. J. Hobley
Earth Surf. Dynam., 6, 563–582, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-6-563-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-6-563-2018, 2018
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This article presents a new technique for computer simulation of slope forms. The method provides a way to study how events that disturb soil or turn rock into soil add up over time to produce landforms. The model represents a cross section of a hypothetical landform as a lattice of cells, each of which may represent air, soil, or rock. Despite its simplicity, the model does a good job of simulating a range of common of natural slope forms.
Liviu Giosan, Thet Naing, Myo Min Tun, Peter D. Clift, Florin Filip, Stefan Constantinescu, Nitesh Khonde, Jerzy Blusztajn, Jan-Pieter Buylaert, Thomas Stevens, and Swe Thwin
Earth Surf. Dynam., 6, 451–466, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-6-451-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-6-451-2018, 2018
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John J. Armitage, Alexander C. Whittaker, Mustapha Zakari, and Benjamin Campforts
Earth Surf. Dynam., 6, 77–99, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-6-77-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-6-77-2018, 2018
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Abigail L. Langston and Gregory E. Tucker
Earth Surf. Dynam., 6, 1–27, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-6-1-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-6-1-2018, 2018
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While vertical incision in bedrock rivers is widely implemented in landscape evolution models, lateral erosion is largely ignored. This makes current models unfit to explain the formation of wide bedrock valleys and strath terraces. In this study we present a fundamental advance in the representation of lateral erosion of bedrock rivers in a landscape evolution model. The model results show a scaling relationship between valley width and drainage area similar to that found in natural systems.
Jeffrey S. Kwang and Gary Parker
Earth Surf. Dynam., 5, 807–820, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-807-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-807-2017, 2017
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A prevalent bedrock incision relation used in landscape evolution is the stream power incision model (SPIM), which relates incision rate to drainage area to the m power and slope to the n power. We show the most commonly used ratio, m ∕ n = 0.5, leads to scale invariance: a landscape that has a horizontal domain of 1 km × 1 km has exactly the same relief pattern as one with a 100 km × 100 km domain. This conclusion indicates that SPIM must yield unrealistic results over a wide range of conditions.
Marc P. Hijma, Zhixiong Shen, Torbjörn E. Törnqvist, and Barbara Mauz
Earth Surf. Dynam., 5, 689–710, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-689-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-689-2017, 2017
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We show that in the last 3 kyr the evolution of the Chenier Plain, >200 km west of the Mississippi Delta, was influenced by changes in the position of the main river mouth, local sediment sources and sea-level rise. This information can be used to constrain future generations of numerical models to obtain more robust predictions of the effects of improved sediment management and accelerated rates of relative sea-level rise on the evolution of mud-dominated coastal environments worldwide.
Vasiliki Mouslopoulou, John Begg, Alexander Fülling, Daniel Moraetis, Panagiotis Partsinevelos, and Onno Oncken
Earth Surf. Dynam., 5, 511–527, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-511-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-511-2017, 2017
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A double coastal alluvial fan system on Crete is used as a proxy for landscape evolution. Each juxtaposed fan records individual phases of alluvial and marine incision, providing unprecedented resolution in the formation and evolution of its landscape. The fan sequence developed during MIS 3 due to sea-level fluctuations but it was preserved due to tectonic uplift during the subsequent 20 000 years. Thus, eustasy and tectonics were important in fan evolution, but over distinct time intervals.
Maarten Lupker, Jérôme Lavé, Christian France-Lanord, Marcus Christl, Didier Bourlès, Julien Carcaillet, Colin Maden, Rainer Wieler, Mustafizur Rahman, Devojit Bezbaruah, and Liu Xiaohan
Earth Surf. Dynam., 5, 429–449, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-429-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-429-2017, 2017
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We use geochemical approaches (10Be) on river sediments to quantify the erosion rates across the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra (TB) catchment in the eastern Himalayas. Our approach confirms the high erosion rates in the eastern Himalayan syntaxis region and we suggest that the abrasion of landslide material in the syntaxis is a key process in explaining how erosion signals are transferred to the sediment load.
Robert R. Wells, Henrique G. Momm, and Carlos Castillo
Earth Surf. Dynam., 5, 347–367, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-347-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-347-2017, 2017
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As technology presents a gateway to finer-resolution survey information, caution must be exercised in the evaluation of alignment error and subsequent morphological determinations. Three survey technologies were evaluated: ground-based photogrammetry, unmanned aerial vehicle photogrammetry, and ground-based lidar. Initial project planning necessitates the effective use of ground control to facilitate alignment and proper morphological conclusions.
Joris T. Eggenhuisen, Matthieu J. B. Cartigny, and Jan de Leeuw
Earth Surf. Dynam., 5, 269–281, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-269-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-269-2017, 2017
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Suspension of particles in turbulent flows is one of the most widely occurring physical phenomena in nature, yet no theory predicts the sediment transport capacity of the wind, avalanches, pyroclastic flows, rivers, and estuarine or marine currents. We derive such a theory from universal turbulence characteristics and fluid and particle properties alone. It compares favourably with measurements and previous empiric formulations, making it the first process-based theory for particle suspension.
Margaux Mouchené, Peter van der Beek, Sébastien Carretier, and Frédéric Mouthereau
Earth Surf. Dynam., 5, 125–143, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-125-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-125-2017, 2017
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The Lannemezan megafan (northern Pyrenean foreland) was abandoned during the Quaternary and subsequently incised. We use numerical models to explore possible scenarios for the evolution of this megafan. We show that autogenic processes are sufficient to explain its evolution. Climate may have played a second-order role; in contrast base-level change, tectonic activity and flexural isostatic rebound do not appear to have influenced its evolution.
Benjamin Campforts, Wolfgang Schwanghart, and Gerard Govers
Earth Surf. Dynam., 5, 47–66, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-47-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-47-2017, 2017
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Despite a growing interest in landscape evolution models, accuracy assessment of the numerical methods they are based on has received little attention. We test a higher-order flux-limiting finite-volume method to simulate river incision and tectonic displacement. We show that this scheme significantly influences the evolution of simulated landscapes and the spatial and temporal variability of erosion rates. Moreover, it allows for the simulation of lateral tectonic displacement on a fixed grid.
Tom J. Coulthard and Christopher J. Skinner
Earth Surf. Dynam., 4, 757–771, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-757-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-757-2016, 2016
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Landscape evolution models are driven by climate or precipitation data. We show that higher-resolution data lead to greater basin sediment yields (> 100 % increase) despite minimal changes in hydrological outputs. Spatially, simulations over 1000 years show finer-resolution data lead to a systematic bias of more erosion in headwater streams with more deposition in valley floors. This could have important implications for the long-term predictions of past and present landscape evolution models.
Joel P. L. Johnson
Earth Surf. Dynam., 4, 685–703, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-685-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-685-2016, 2016
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Accurately predicting gravel transport rates in mountain rivers is difficult because of feedbacks with channel morphology. River bed surfaces evolve during floods, influencing transport rates. I propose that the threshold of gravel motion is a state variable for channel reach evolution. I develop a new model to predict how transport thresholds evolve as a function of transport rate, and then use laboratory flume experiments to calibrate and validate the model.
Jon D. Pelletier, Mary H. Nichols, and Mark A. Nearing
Earth Surf. Dynam., 4, 471–488, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-471-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-471-2016, 2016
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This paper documents that a shift from grassland to shrubland within the past few thousand years has caused erosion rates to increase more than 10-fold and drainage density to increase approximately 3-fold in areas of otherwise similar climate and geology at a study site in Arizona. We provide a mathematical model that predicts the observed drainage density under both grassland and shrubland conditions. In the model application we are able to tightly constrain every parameter.
Guilhem Aubert, Vincent J. Langlois, and Pascal Allemand
Earth Surf. Dynam., 4, 327–342, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-327-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-327-2016, 2016
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We performed the first direct numerical simulations of the process by which the pebbles transported by a river repeatedly impact its bedrock and consequently contribute to its erosion. Our results are consistent with existing experimental measurements and allow us to predict the incision rate of a river as a function of its water discharge, the amount of sediment available, and the roughness of the bedrock, which is essential to study the long-term evolution of mountain ranges.
Sébastien Carretier, Pierre Martinod, Martin Reich, and Yves Godderis
Earth Surf. Dynam., 4, 237–251, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-237-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-237-2016, 2016
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We introduce moving clasts (grains, minerals, cobbles) in a landscape evolution model.
This coupling has many potential applications, such as sediment provenance or the tracing of weathered material. It fills a gap between long-term landscape dynamics, which are difficult to tackle, and sediment clast populations studied in the field.
C. F. Brædstrup, D. L. Egholm, S. V. Ugelvig, and V. K. Pedersen
Earth Surf. Dynam., 4, 159–174, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-159-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-159-2016, 2016
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When studying long-term glacial landscape evolution one must make simplifying assumptions about the nature of glacial flow. In this study we show that for two different numerical models such simplifications are mostly unimportant in the setting of glacial landscape evolution. Following this we find that glacial erosion is most intense in the early stages of glaciation and its effects are reduced with time due to flow patterns in the ice removing areas of highest resistance to flow.
J.-L. Grimaud, C. Paola, and V. Voller
Earth Surf. Dynam., 4, 11–23, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-11-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-11-2016, 2016
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Knickpoints represent localized steps along a river profile (e.g. waterfalls or rapids) that are commonly interpreted as the geomorphic response of river systems to external changes. We used a simple experiment to show that knickpoints may not only respond to external base-level change but are also able to self-organize. We highlight the effect of alluvial cover in delaying knickpoint formation and show that river bed strength controls both retreat velocity and geometry of knickpoints.
J. L. Andersen, D. L. Egholm, M. F. Knudsen, J. D. Jansen, and S. B. Nielsen
Earth Surf. Dynam., 3, 447–462, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-3-447-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-3-447-2015, 2015
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An increasing number of studies demonstrates links between the intensity of periglacial processes and bedrock erosion in steep mountain landscapes. Here, we quantify the dependence of periglacial processes on temperature and sediment thickness. This allows us to model frost processes across the full range of settings encountered in mountain landscapes. We find that sediment mantle thickness strongly modulates the relation between climate and periglacial weathering and sediment transport.
D. L. Egholm, J. L. Andersen, M. F. Knudsen, J. D. Jansen, and S. B. Nielsen
Earth Surf. Dynam., 3, 463–482, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-3-463-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-3-463-2015, 2015
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We incorporate relations between climate, sediment thickness and periglacial processes quantified in the accompanying paper into a landscape evolution model. This allows us to time-integrate the periglacial contribution to mountain topography on million-year time scales. It is a robust result of our simulations that periglacial processes lead to topographic smoothing. Owing to the climate dependency, this smoothing leads to formation of low-relief surfaces at altitudes controlled by temperature.
A. R. Beer and J. M. Turowski
Earth Surf. Dynam., 3, 291–309, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-3-291-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-3-291-2015, 2015
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We applied a spatiotemporally highly resolved dataset of discharge, sediment transport and bedrock erosion data to assess the validity of landscape evolution models at the process scale (resolution of square meters and minutes). The tools effect is found to be the dominant driver of erosion and an easy model is able to predict measured erosion. For larger scales common discharge-dependend modeling with a discharge threshold is adequate to regive the overal trend of the erosion signal.
R. M. Headley and T. A. Ehlers
Earth Surf. Dynam., 3, 153–170, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-3-153-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-3-153-2015, 2015
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Within a landscape evolution model operating over geologic timescales, this work evaluates how different assumptions and levels of complexity for modeling glacier flow impact the pattern and amount of glacial erosion. Compared to those in colder climates, modeled glaciers in warmer and wetter climates are more sensitive to the choice of glacier flow model. Differences between landscapes evolved with different glacier flow models are intensified over multiple cycles.
L. Zhang, G. Parker, C. P. Stark, T. Inoue, E. Viparelli, X. Fu, and N. Izumi
Earth Surf. Dynam., 3, 113–138, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-3-113-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-3-113-2015, 2015
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The saltation-abrasion model captures bedrock incision due stones striking bedrock. We present the Macro-Roughness-based Saltation-Abrasion-Alluviation (MRSAA) model, which tracks spatiotemporal variation of both bedload and alluvial thickness. It captures migrating waves of incision upstream and alluviation downstream. We apply it to incision problems not captured by saltation-abrasion, including the response to alluviation and stripping, and a simplified graben with uplift and subsidence.
M. Liang, V. R. Voller, and C. Paola
Earth Surf. Dynam., 3, 67–86, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-3-67-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-3-67-2015, 2015
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In this work we present DeltaRCM, a reduced-complexity model for river delta formation. It is a rule-based cellular morphodynamic model, in contrast to reductionist models based on detailed computational fluid dynamics. DeltaRCM is able to resolve channel dynamics and to produce stratigraphy. We also explain the meaning of complexity reduction, especially the essential processes to be included in modeling deltas.
M. Liang, N. Geleynse, D. A. Edmonds, and P. Passalacqua
Earth Surf. Dynam., 3, 87–104, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-3-87-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-3-87-2015, 2015
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In this work we assess the flow-routing component (FlowRCM) of our delta formation model, DeltaRCM. We found that with the level of complexity reduction, FlowRCM is able to produce channel network-scale hydrodynamic details, which provide further insights into the connection between delta flow structures and the morphodynamic outcome.
U. Lombardo
Earth Surf. Dynam., 2, 493–511, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2-493-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2-493-2014, 2014
A. Pelosi and G. Parker
Earth Surf. Dynam., 2, 243–253, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2-243-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2-243-2014, 2014
M. Scherler, S. Schneider, M. Hoelzle, and C. Hauck
Earth Surf. Dynam., 2, 141–154, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2-141-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2-141-2014, 2014
Z. Zhou, L. Stefanon, M. Olabarrieta, A. D'Alpaos, L. Carniello, and G. Coco
Earth Surf. Dynam., 2, 105–116, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2-105-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2-105-2014, 2014
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Short summary
Maps of elevation are used to help predict the flow of water so we can better understand landslides, floods, and global climate change. However, modeling the flow of water is difficult when elevation maps include swamps, lakes, and other depressions. This paper explains a new method that overcomes these difficulties, allowing models to run faster and more accurately.
Maps of elevation are used to help predict the flow of water so we can better understand...