Articles | Volume 9, issue 2
https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-9-351-2021
© Author(s) 2021. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-9-351-2021
© Author(s) 2021. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
23 Apr 2021
Research article |
| 23 Apr 2021
| 23 Apr 2021
Inferring potential landslide damming using slope stability, geomorphic constraints, and run-out analysis: a case study from the NW Himalaya
Georisks and Environment, Department of Geology, University of Liege, Liège, Belgium
Imlirenla Jamir
CSIR – National Geophysical Research Institute, Hyderabad, India
Vikram Gupta
Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun, India
Rajinder K. Bhasin
Norwegian Geotechnical Institute, Oslo, Norway
Related authors
Yaspal Sundriyal, Vipin Kumar, Neha Chauhan, Sameeksha Kaushik, Rahul Ranjan, and Mohit Kumar Punia
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 1425–1431, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-23-1425-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-23-1425-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The NW Himalaya has been one of the most affected terrains of the Himalaya, subject to disastrous landslides. This article focuses on two towns (Joshimath and Bhatwari) of the NW Himalaya, which have been witnessing subsidence for decades. We used a slope stability simulation to determine the response of the hillslopes accommodating these towns under various loading conditions. We found that the maximum displacement in these hillslopes might reach up to 20–25 m.
Vipin Kumar, Léna Cauchie, Anne-Sophie Mreyen, Mihai Micu, and Hans-Balder Havenith
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 21, 3767–3788, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-21-3767-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-21-3767-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
The SE Carpathians belong to one of the most active seismic regions of Europe. In recent decades, extreme rainfall events have also been common. These natural processes result in frequent landslides, particularly of a debris flow type. Despite such regimes, the region has been little explored to understand the response of the landslides in seismic and rainfall conditions. This study attempts to fill this gap by evaluating landslide responses under seismic and extreme-rainfall regimes.
Yaspal Sundriyal, Vipin Kumar, Neha Chauhan, Sameeksha Kaushik, Rahul Ranjan, and Mohit Kumar Punia
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 1425–1431, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-23-1425-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-23-1425-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The NW Himalaya has been one of the most affected terrains of the Himalaya, subject to disastrous landslides. This article focuses on two towns (Joshimath and Bhatwari) of the NW Himalaya, which have been witnessing subsidence for decades. We used a slope stability simulation to determine the response of the hillslopes accommodating these towns under various loading conditions. We found that the maximum displacement in these hillslopes might reach up to 20–25 m.
Vipin Kumar, Léna Cauchie, Anne-Sophie Mreyen, Mihai Micu, and Hans-Balder Havenith
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 21, 3767–3788, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-21-3767-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-21-3767-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
The SE Carpathians belong to one of the most active seismic regions of Europe. In recent decades, extreme rainfall events have also been common. These natural processes result in frequent landslides, particularly of a debris flow type. Despite such regimes, the region has been little explored to understand the response of the landslides in seismic and rainfall conditions. This study attempts to fill this gap by evaluating landslide responses under seismic and extreme-rainfall regimes.
Cited articles
Abramson, L. W., Lee, T. S., Sharma, S., and Boyce, G. M.: Slope stability and stabilization methods, 2nd Edn., Wiley, New York, 736 pp., 2001.
Aydin, A.: ISRM suggested method for determination of the Schmidt hammer
rebound hardness: revised version, in: The ISRM Suggested Methods for Rock
Characterization, Testing and Monitoring: 2007–2014, edited by: Ulusay, R.,
Springer, Cham, 25–33, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-07713-0_2, 2008.
Barton, N. and Bandis, S.: Effects of block size on the shear behavior of
jointed rock, in: Proceeding of the 23rd US symposium on rock mechanics, American Rock Mechanics Association, Berkeley, 739–760, 1982.
Barton, N. and Choubey, V.: The shear strength of rock joints in theory and
practice, Rock Mech., 10, 1–54, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01261801, 1977.
Barton, N. R.: A model study of rock-joint deformation, Int. J. Rock Mech.
Min., 9, 579–602, https://doi.org/10.1016/0148-9062(72)90010-1, 1972.
Barton, N. R. and Bandis, S. C.: Review of predictive capabilities of JRC-JCS
model in engineering practice, in: Rock Joints: proceeding of the International Symposium on Rock Joints, edited by: Barton, N. and Stephansson, O., Rotterdam, 603–610, 1990.
Bilham, R.: Himalayan earthquakes: a review of historical seismicity and
early 21st century slip potential, Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ., 483, 423–482,
https://doi.org/10.1144/SP483.16, 2019.
Bowles, J. E.: Foundation Analysis and Design, 5th Edn., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1996.
Braun, A., Cuomo, S., Petrosino, S., Wang, X., and Zhang, L.: Numerical SPH
analysis of debris flow run-out and related river damming scenarios for a
local case study in SW China, Landslides, 15, 535–550, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-017-0885-9, 2018.
Cai, M., Kaiser, P. K., Tasaka, Y., and Minami, M.: Determination of residual strength parameters of jointed rock masses using the GSI system, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min., 44, 247–265, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2006.07.005, 2007.
Chawla, A., Kumar, A., Lal, B., Singh, R. D., and Thukral, A. K.: Ecological
Characterization of High Altitude Himalayan Landscapes in the Upper Satluj
River Watershed, Kinnaur, Himachal Pradesh, India, J. Indian Soc. Remote,
40, 519–539, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12524-011-0169-0, 2012.
Cho, S. E.: Effects of spatial variability of soil properties on slope
stability, Eng. Geol., 92, 97–109, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2007.03.006, 2007.
Christen, M., Kowalski, J., and Bartelt, P.: RAMMS: Numerical simulation of
dense snow avalanches in three-dimensional terrain, Cold Reg. Sci. Technol.,
63, 1–14, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2010.04.005, 2010.
Corominas, J. and Mavrouli, J.: Living with landslide risk in Europe: Assessment, effects of global change, and risk management strategies,
Documento tecnico, SafeLand, 7th Framework Programme Cooperation Theme, NGI – Norwegian Geotechnical Institute, Oslo, Norway, 2011.
Costa, J. E. and Schuster, R. L.: The formation and failure of natural dams,
Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 100, 1054–1068, https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1988)100<1054:TFAFON>2.3.CO;2, 1988.
Coulomb, C. A.: An attempt to apply the rules of maxima and minima to several
problems of stability related to architecture, Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences, 7, 343–382, 1776.
Cruden, D. M. and Varnes, D. J.: Landslides: investigation and mitigation, in: Landslide types and processes, Special Report 247, Transportation Research Board, US National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC, 1996.
Dai, F. C., Lee, C. F., Deng, J. H., and Tham, L. G.: The 1786 earthquake-triggered landslide dam and subsequent dam-break flood on the
Dadu River, southwestern China, Geomorphology, 65, 205–221, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2004.08.011, 2005.
Deere, D. U. and Miller, R. P.: Engineering classification and index properties for intact rock, Technical Report No. AFWL-TR-65-116, University of Illinois, Urbana, USA, 1966.
Delaney, K. B. and Evans, S. G.: The 2000 Yigong landslide (Tibetan Plateau),
rockslide-dammed lake and outburst flood: review, remote sensing analysis,
and process modelling, Geomorphology, 246, 377–393, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2015.06.020, 2015.
Dimri, A. P., Niyogi, D., Barros, A. P., Ridley, J., Mohanty, U. C., Yasunari, T., and Sikka, D. R.: Western disturbances: A review, Rev. Geophys., 53, 225–246, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014RG000460, 2015.
Dong, J. J., Tung, Y. H., Chen, C. C., Liao, J. J., and Pan, Y. W.: Logistic
regression model for predicting the failure probability of a landslide dam,
Eng. Geol., 117, 52–61, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2010.10.004, 2011.
Duncan, J. M.: State of art: limit equilibrium and finite element analysis of
slopes, J. Geotech. Eng.-ASCE, 122, 577–596, https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1996)122:7(577), 1996.
Eberhardt, E., Stead, D., and Coggan, J. S.: Numerical analysis of initiation
and progressive failure in natural rock slopes – the 1991 Randa rockslide,
Int. J. Rock Mech. Min., 41, 69–87, https://doi.org/10.1016/S1365-1609(03)00076-5, 2004.
Ermini, L. and Casagli, N.: Prediction of the behaviour of landslide dams
using a geomorphological dimensionless index, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 28, 31–47, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.424, 2002.
Fan, X., Dufresne, A., Subramanian, S. S., Strom, A., Hermanns, R., Stefanelli, C. T., Hewitt, K., Yunus, A. P., Dunning, S., Capra, L., and
Geertsema, M.: The formation and impact of landslide dams – State of the art, Earth-Sci. Rev., 203, 103116, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103116, 2020.
Fujisawa, K., Kobayashi, A., and Aoyama, S.: Theoretical description of
embankment erosion owing to overflow, Geotechnique, 59, 661–671,
https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.7.00035, 2009.
Gadgil, S., Rajeevan, M., and Francis, P. A.: Monsoon variability: Links to
major oscillations over the equatorial Pacific and Indian oceans, Curr. Sci., 93, 182–194, 2007.
Griffiths, D. V. and Lane, P. A.: Slope stability analysis by finite elements, Geotechnique, 49, 387–403, https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1999.49.3.387, 1999.
Griffiths, D. V. and Marquez, R. M.: Three-dimensional slope stability
analysis by elasto-plastic finite elements, Geotechnique, 57, 537–546,
https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2007.57.6.537, 2007.
Gupta, V. and Sah, M. P.: Impact of the trans-Himalayan landslide lake
outburst flood (LLOF) in the Satluj catchment, Himachal Pradesh, India, Nat.
Hazards, 45, 379–390, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-007-9174-6, 2008.
Hazarika, D., Wadhawan, M., Paul, A., Kumar, N., and Borah, K.: Geometry of
the Main Himalayan Thrust and Moho beneath Satluj valley, northwest Himalaya: Constraints from receiver function analysis, J. Geophys. Res.-Solid, 122, 2929–2945, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JB013783, 2017.
Hoek, E. and Brown, E. T.: Practical estimates of rock mass strength, Int. J.
Rock Mech. Min., 34, 1165–1186, https://doi.org/10.1016/S1365-1609(97)80069-X, 1997.
Hoek, E. and Diederichs, M. S.: Empirical estimation of rock mass modulus,
Int. J. Rock Mech. Min., 43, 203–215, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2005.06.005, 2006.
Hoek, E., Kaiser, P. K., and Bawden, W. F.: Support of Underground Excavations in Hard Rock, A. A. Alkema, Rotterdam, 1995.
Huffman, G. J., Bolvin, D. T., Nelkin, E. J., and Adler, R. F.: TRMM (TMPA)
Precipitation L3 1 day 0.25 degree × 0.25 degree V7, edited by: Savtchenko, A., GES DISC – Goddard Earth Sciences Data and Information Services Center, https://doi.org/10.5067/TRMM/TMPA/DAY/7, 2016.
Hungr, O. and Evans, S. G.: Entrainment of debris in rock avalanches: an
analysis of a long run-out mechanism, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 116, 1240–1252, https://doi.org/10.1130/B25362.1, 2004.
Hungr, O., Morgan, G. C., and Kellerhals, R.: Quantitative analysis of debris
torrent hazards for design of remedial measures, Can. Geotech. J., 21, 663–677, https://doi.org/10.1139/t84-073, 1984.
Hungr, O., Leroueil, S., and Picarelli, L.: The Varnes classification of
landslide types, an update, Landslides, 11, 167–194, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-013-0436-y, 2014.
Hunt, K. M., Turner, A. G., and Shaffrey, L. C.: The evolution, seasonality and impacts of western disturbances, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 144, 278–290, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3200, 2018.
Hürlimann, M., Rickenmann, D., Medina, V., and Bateman, A.: Evaluation
of approaches to calculate debris-flow parameters for hazard assessment,
Eng. Geol., 102, 152–163, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.03.012, 2008.
Hutter, K., Svendsen, B., and Rickenmann, D.: Debris flow modelling: a review, Continuum Mech. Thermodyn., 8, 1–35, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01175749, 1994.
Innes, J. L.: Debris flows, Prog. Phys. Geogr., 7, 469–501,
https://doi.org/10.1177/030913338300700401, 1983.
IS – Indian Standard 9143: Method for the determination of unconfined
compressive strength of rock materials, in: Bureau of Indian Standards,
Delhi, India, 1979.
IS – Indian Standard 2720 (Part 4): Methods of test for soils: Grain size
analysis, in: Bureau of Indian Standards, Delhi, India, 1985.
IS – Indian Standard 2720 (Part 13): Method of test for soils: Direct shear
test, in: Bureau of Indian Standards, Delhi, India, 1986.
IS – Indian Standard 2720 (Part 10): Method of test for soils: Determination
of unconfined compressive strength, in: Bureau of Indian Standards, Delhi,
India, 1991.
Jamir, I., Gupta, V., Kumar, V., and Thong, G. T.: Evaluation of potential
surface instability using finite element method in Kharsali Village, Yamuna
Valley, Northwest Himalaya, J. Mt. Sci., 14, 1666–1676, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-017-4410-3, 2017.
Jamir, I., Gupta, V., Thong, G. T., and Kumar, V.: Litho-tectonic and
precipitation implications on landslides, Yamuna valley, NW Himalaya, Phys.
Geogr., 41, 365–388, https://doi.org/10.1080/02723646.2019.1672024, 2019.
Jang, H. S., Kang, S. S., and Jang, B. A.: Determination of joint roughness
coefficients using roughness parameters, Rock Mech. Rock Eng., 47, 2061–2073, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00603-013-0535-z, 2014.
Jing, L.: A review of techniques, advance and outstanding issues in numerical modelling for rock mechanics and rock engineering, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min., 40, 283–353, https://doi.org/10.1016/S1365-1609(03)00013-3, 2003.
Khattri, K., Rai, K., Jain, A. K., Sinvhal, H., Gaur, V. K., and Mithal, R. S.: The Kinnaur earthquake, Himachal Pradesh, India, of 19 January, 1975,
Tectonophysics, 49, 1–21, https://doi.org/10.1016/0040-1951(78)90095-1, 1978.
Kokutse, N. K., Temgoua, A. G. T., and Kavazović, Z.: Slope stability and
vegetation: Conceptual and numerical investigation of mechanical effects, Ecol. Eng., 86, 146–153, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2015.11.005, 2016.
Kumar, V., Gupta, V., and Jamir, I.: Hazard Evaluation of Progressive Pawari
Landslide Zone, Kinnaur, Satluj Valley, Higher Himalaya, India, Nat. Hazards, 93, 1029–1047, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-018-3339-3, 2018.
Kumar, V., Gupta, V., Jamir, I., and Chattoraj, S. L.: Evaluation of potential landslide damming: Case study of Urni landslide, Kinnaur, Satluj
valley, India, Geosci. Front., 10, 753–767, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2018.05.004, 2019a.
Kumar, V., Gupta, V., and Sundriyal, Y. P.: Spatial interrelationship of landslides, litho-tectonics, and climate regime, Satluj valley, Northwest
Himalaya, Geol. J., 54, 537–551, https://doi.org/10.1002/gj.3204, 2019b.
Kumar, V., Jamir, I., Gupta, V., and Bhasin, R.K.: Dataset used to infer
regional slope stability, NW Himalaya, Mendeley Data, https://doi.org/10.17632/jh8b2rh8nz.2, 2021.
Kundu, B., Yadav, R. K., Bali, B. S., Chowdhury, S., and Gahalaut, V. K.:
Oblique convergence and slip partitioning in the NW Himalaya: Implications
from GPS measurements, Tectonics, 33, 2013–2024, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014TC003633, 2014.
Lata, R., Rishi, S., Talwar, D., and Dolma, K.: Comparative Study of Landuse
Pattern in the Hilly Area of Kinnaur District, Himachal Pradesh, India, Int. J. Innov. Sci. Eng. Technol., 2, 559–565, 2015.
Li, D. Q., Qi, X. H., Cao, Z. J., Tang, X. S., Phoon, K. K., and Zhou, C. B.:
Evaluating slope stability uncertainty using coupled Markov chain, Comput.
Geotech., 73, 72–82, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2015.11.021, 2016.
Li, M. H., Sung, R. T., Dong, J. J., Lee, C. T., and Chen, C. C.: The formation and breaching of a short-lived landslide dam at Hsiaolin village,
Taiwan – Part II: Simulation of debris flow with landslide dam breach, Eng.
Geol., 123, 60–71, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2011.05.002, 2011.
Li, T., Schuster, R. L., and Wu, J.: Landslide dams in south-central China,
in: Proc. of the Landslide dams: processes, risk, and mitigation, ASCE
Convention, Washington, 146–162, 1986.
Martha, T. R., Kerle, N., Jetten, V., van Westen, C. J., and Kumar, K. V.:
Landslide volumetric analysis using Cartosat-1-derived DEMs, IEEE Geosci.
Remote Sens., 7, 582–586, https://doi.org/10.1109/LGRS.2010.2041895, 2010.
Matsui, T. and San, K. C.: Finite element slope stability analysis by shear
strength reduction technique, Soils Found., 32, 59–70, https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf1972.32.59, 1992.
Mohr, O.: Abhandlungen aus dem Gebiete der Technischen Mechanik, 2nd Edn.,
W. Ernst & Sohn, Berlin, 1914.
NDMA – National Disaster Management Authority: Annual report, Government of
India, Delhi, 2013.
Nian, T. K., Chen, G. Q., Wan, S. S., and Luan, M. T.: Non-convergence Criterion on Slope Stability FE Analysis by Strength Reduction Method, J.
Converg. Inform. Technol., 6, 78–88, 2011.
Parkash, S.: Historical records of socio-economically significant landslides
in India, J. S. Asia Disast. Stud., 4, 177–204, 2011.
Rahardjo, H., Lee, T. T., Leong, E. C., and Rezaur, R. B.: Response of a
residual soil slope to rainfall, Can. Geotech. J., 42, 340–351,
https://doi.org/10.1139/t04-101, 2005.
Rickenmann, D.: Runout prediction methods, in: Debris-flow hazards and
related phenomena, edited by: Jakob, M. and Hungr, O., Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 305–324, https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-27129-5_13, 2005.
Rickenmann, D. and Scheidl, C.: Debris-Flow Runout and Deposition on the Fan, in: Dating Torrential Processes on Fans and Cones, Advances in Global Change
Research, edited by: Bollschweiler, M. S., Stoffel, M., and Miklau, F. R., Springer, Dordrecht, 75–93, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4336-6_5, 2013.
Ruiz-Villanueva, V., Allen, S., Arora, M., Goel, N. K., and Stoffel, M.:
Recent catastrophic landslide lake outburst floods in the Himalayan mountain
range, Prog. Phys. Geogr., 41, 3–28, https://doi.org/10.1177/0309133316658614, 2016.
Salm, B.: Flow, flow transition and runout distances of flowing avalanches,
Ann. Glaciol., 18, 221–226, https://doi.org/10.3189/S0260305500011551, 1993.
Sharma, K. K.: A contribution to the geology of Satluj Valley, Kinnaur, Himachal Pradesh, India, Collques Internationaux du CNRS, 268, 369–378, 1977.
Sharma, S., Shukla, A. D., Bartarya, S. K., Marh, B. S., and Juyal, N.: The
Holocene floods and their affinity to climatic variability in the western
Himalaya, India, Geomorphology, 290, 317–334, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2017.04.030, 2017.
Singh, D., Gupta, R. D., and Jain, S. K.: Statistical analysis of long term
spatial and temporal trends of temperature parameters over Sutlej river basin, India, J. Earth Syst. Sci., 124, 17–35, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12040-014-0530-0, 2015.
Stefanelli, C. T., Segoni, S., Casagli, N., and Catani, F.: Geomorphic
indexing of landslide dams evolution, Eng. Geol., 208, 1–10, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2016.04.024, 2016.
Takahashi, T. and Nakagawa, H.: Flood and debris flow hydrograph due to
collapse of a natural dam by overtopping, Proc. Hydraul. Eng. Jpn., 37, 699–704, https://doi.org/10.2208/prohe.37.699, 1993.
Terzaghi, K.: Mechanism of Landslides, in: Application of Geology to Engineering Practice, Geol. Soc. Am., New York, 83–123, https://doi.org/10.1130/Berkey.1950.83, 1950.
Thiede, R. C., Ehlers, T. A., Bookhagen, B., and Strecker, M. R.: Erosional
variability along the northwest Himalaya, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 114, F101015, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JF001010, 2009.
Vannay, J. C., Grasemann, B., Rahn, M., Frank, W., Carter, A., Baudraz, V.,
and Cosca, M.: Miocene to Holocene exhumation of metamorphic crustal wedges
in the NW Himalaya: Evidence for tectonic extrusion coupled to fluvial
erosion, Tectonics, 23, TC1014, https://doi.org/10.1029/2002TC001429, 2004.
Voellmy, A.: On the destructive force of avalanche, Translation No. 2, Avalanche Study Center, United States Department of Agriculture, USA, available at:
https://collections.lib.utah.edu/ark:/87278/s6sq8xc1 (last access: 10 March 2020), 1955.
Wong, F. S.: Uncertainties in FE modelling of slope stability, Comput. Struct., 19, 777–791, https://doi.org/10.1016/0045-7949(84)90177-9, 1984.
Wulf, H., Bookhagen, B., and Scherler, D.: Climatic and geologic controls on
suspended sediment flux in the Sutlej River Valley, western Himalaya, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 16, 2193–2217, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-16-2193-2012, 2012.
Yu, G., Zhang, M., and Chen, H.: The dynamic process and sensitivity analysis for debris flow, in: Landslide Science for a Safer Geoenvironment, edited by: Sassa, K., Canuti, P., and Yin, Y., Springer, Cham, 159–165,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-05050-8_26, 2014.
Zhang, P. W. and Chen, Z. Y.: Influences of soil elastic modulus and Poisson's ratio on slope stability, YantuLixue, Rock Soil Mech., 27, 299–303, 2006.
Zienkiewicz, O. C., Humpheson, C., and Lewis, R. W.: Associated and non-associated viscoplasticity and plasticity in soil mechanics, Geotechnique, 25, 671–689, https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1975.25.4.671, 1975.
Short summary
Despite a history of landslide damming and flash floods in the NW Himalaya, only a few studies have been performed. This study predicts some potential landslide damming sites in the Satluj valley, NW Himalaya, using field observations, laboratory analyses, geomorphic proxies, and numerical simulations. Five landslides, comprising a total landslide volume of 26.3 ± 6.7 M m3, are found to have the potential to block the river in the case of slope failure.
Despite a history of landslide damming and flash floods in the NW Himalaya, only a few studies...
