Articles | Volume 10, issue 1
https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-10-23-2022
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-10-23-2022
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
11 Jan 2022
Research article |
| 11 Jan 2022
| 11 Jan 2022
Intensified paraglacial slope failures due to accelerating downwasting of a temperate glacier in Mt. Gongga, southeastern Tibetan Plateau
Yan Zhong
Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment, Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Chengdu 610041, China
College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy
of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment, Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Chengdu 610041, China
Matthew Westoby
Department of Geography and Environmental Sciences, Engineering and
Environment, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 8ST, UK
Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment, Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Chengdu 610041, China
Francesca Pellicciotti
Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research WSL,
8903 Birmensdorf, Switzerland
Bo Zhang
Department of Surveying and Geo-Informatics, Faculty of Geosciences
and Environmental Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu
611756, China
Jialun Cai
Department of Surveying and Geo-Informatics, Faculty of Geosciences
and Environmental Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu
611756, China
Guoxiang Liu
Department of Surveying and Geo-Informatics, Faculty of Geosciences
and Environmental Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu
611756, China
Haijun Liao
Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment, Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Chengdu 610041, China
College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy
of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
Xuyang Lu
Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment, Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Chengdu 610041, China
Related authors
No articles found.
Yunyi Luo, Qiao Liu, Xueyuan Lu, Yongsheng Yin, Jiawei Yang, and Xuyang Lu
Earth Syst. Sci. Data Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2025-596, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2025-596, 2025
Preprint under review for ESSD
Short summary
Short summary
Glaciers that end in lakes are changing rapidly in the mountains of Asia. We created the first long-term record of these glaciers and their lakes from 1990 to 2022 by analyzing satellite images. Our results show that many glaciers are shrinking while their lakes are growing. These changes matter because they affect water supply, flood risks, and mountain landscapes. This dataset offers new knowledge to support research and planning for climate change impacts.
Kaiheng Hu, Manish Raj Gouli, Hao Li, Yong Nie, Yifan Shu, Shuang Liu, Pu Li, and Xiaopeng Zhang
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-884, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-884, 2024
Preprint archived
Short summary
Short summary
An integrated approach comprising a field survey, remote sensing, and hydrodynamic modeling was applied to investigate the Rijieco Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) in 1991. The flood caused devastating ecological consequences, like sedimentation and the expansion of an inland lake, which has not yet recovered after three decades. The results help understand the ecological impacts of outburst floods on the Tibetan inland lake system and make future flood hazard assessments more robust.
Chuanxi Zhao, Wei Yang, Evan Miles, Matthew Westoby, Marin Kneib, Yongjie Wang, Zhen He, and Francesca Pellicciotti
The Cryosphere, 17, 3895–3913, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3895-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3895-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
This paper quantifies the thinning and surface mass balance of two neighbouring debris-covered glaciers in the southeastern Tibetan Plateau during different seasons, based on high spatio-temporal resolution UAV-derived (unpiloted aerial
vehicle) data and in situ observations. Through a comparison approach and high-precision results, we identify that the glacier dynamic and debris thickness are strongly related to the future fate of the debris-covered glaciers in this region.
Fuming Xie, Shiyin Liu, Yongpeng Gao, Yu Zhu, Tobias Bolch, Andreas Kääb, Shimei Duan, Wenfei Miao, Jianfang Kang, Yaonan Zhang, Xiran Pan, Caixia Qin, Kunpeng Wu, Miaomiao Qi, Xianhe Zhang, Ying Yi, Fengze Han, Xiaojun Yao, Qiao Liu, Xin Wang, Zongli Jiang, Donghui Shangguan, Yong Zhang, Richard Grünwald, Muhammad Adnan, Jyoti Karki, and Muhammad Saifullah
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 15, 847–867, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-847-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-847-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
In this study, first we generated inventories which allowed us to systematically detect glacier change patterns in the Karakoram range. We found that, by the 2020s, there were approximately 10 500 glaciers in the Karakoram mountains covering an area of 22 510.73 km2, of which ~ 10.2 % is covered by debris. During the past 30 years (from 1990 to 2020), the total glacier cover area in Karakoram remained relatively stable, with a slight increase in area of 23.5 km2.
Muchu Lesi, Yong Nie, Dan Hirsh Shugar, Jida Wang, Qian Deng, Huayong Chen, and Jianrong Fan
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 14, 5489–5512, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-5489-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-5489-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The China–Pakistan Economic Corridor plays a vital role in foreign trade and faces threats from water shortage and water-related hazards. An up-to-date glacial lake dataset with critical parameters is basic for water resource and flood risk research, which is absent from the corridor. This study created a glacial lake dataset in 2020 from Landsat and Sentinel images from 1990–2000, using a threshold-based mapping method. Our dataset has the potential to be widely applied.
Marin Kneib, Evan S. Miles, Pascal Buri, Stefan Fugger, Michael McCarthy, Thomas E. Shaw, Zhao Chuanxi, Martin Truffer, Matthew J. Westoby, Wei Yang, and Francesca Pellicciotti
The Cryosphere, 16, 4701–4725, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4701-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4701-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Ice cliffs are believed to be important contributors to the melt of debris-covered glaciers, but this has rarely been quantified as the cliffs can disappear or rapidly expand within a few weeks. We used photogrammetry techniques to quantify the weekly evolution and melt of four cliffs. We found that their behaviour and melt during the monsoon is strongly controlled by supraglacial debris, streams and ponds, thus providing valuable insights on the melt and evolution of debris-covered glaciers.
Loris Compagno, Matthias Huss, Evan Stewart Miles, Michael James McCarthy, Harry Zekollari, Amaury Dehecq, Francesca Pellicciotti, and Daniel Farinotti
The Cryosphere, 16, 1697–1718, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1697-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1697-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We present a new approach for modelling debris area and thickness evolution. We implement the module into a combined mass-balance ice-flow model, and we apply it using different climate scenarios to project the future evolution of all glaciers in High Mountain Asia. We show that glacier geometry, volume, and flow velocity evolve differently when modelling explicitly debris cover compared to glacier evolution without the debris-cover module, demonstrating the importance of accounting for debris.
Stefan Fugger, Catriona L. Fyffe, Simone Fatichi, Evan Miles, Michael McCarthy, Thomas E. Shaw, Baohong Ding, Wei Yang, Patrick Wagnon, Walter Immerzeel, Qiao Liu, and Francesca Pellicciotti
The Cryosphere, 16, 1631–1652, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1631-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1631-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The monsoon is important for the shrinking and growing of glaciers in the Himalaya during summer. We calculate the melt of seven glaciers in the region using a complex glacier melt model and weather data. We find that monsoonal weather affects glaciers that are covered with a layer of rocky debris and glaciers without such a layer in different ways. It is important to take so-called turbulent fluxes into account. This knowledge is vital for predicting the future of the Himalayan glaciers.
Chuanxi Zhao, Wei Yang, Matthew Westoby, Baosheng An, Guangjian Wu, Weicai Wang, Zhongyan Wang, Yongjie Wang, and Stuart Dunning
The Cryosphere, 16, 1333–1340, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1333-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1333-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
On 22 March 2021, a ~ 50 Mm 3 ice-rock avalanche occurred from 6500 m a.s.l. in the Sedongpu basin, southeastern Tibet. It caused temporary blockage of the Yarlung Tsangpo river, a major tributary of the Brahmaputra. We utilize field investigations, high-resolution satellite imagery, seismic records, and meteorological data to analyse the evolution of the 2021 event and its impact, discuss potential drivers, and briefly reflect on implications for the sustainable development of the region.
Xiaowen Wang, Lin Liu, Yan Hu, Tonghua Wu, Lin Zhao, Qiao Liu, Rui Zhang, Bo Zhang, and Guoxiang Liu
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 21, 2791–2810, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-21-2791-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-21-2791-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We characterized the multi-decadal geomorphic changes of a low-angle valley glacier in the East Kunlun Mountains and assessed the detachment hazard influence. The observations reveal a slow surge-like dynamic pattern of the glacier tongue. The maximum runout distances of two endmember avalanche scenarios were presented. This study provides a reference to evaluate the runout hazards of low-angle mountain glaciers prone to detachment.
Thomas E. Shaw, Wei Yang, Álvaro Ayala, Claudio Bravo, Chuanxi Zhao, and Francesca Pellicciotti
The Cryosphere, 15, 595–614, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-595-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-595-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Near surface air temperature (Ta) is important for simulating the melting of glaciers, though its variability in space and time on mountain glaciers is still poorly understood. We combine new Ta observations on glacier in Tibet with several glacier datasets around the world to explore the applicability of an existing method to estimate glacier Ta based upon glacier flow distance. We make a first step at generalising a method and highlight the remaining unknowns for this field of research.
Cited articles
Ballantyne, C. K.: Paraglacial landform succession and sediment storage in deglaciated mountain valleys: theory and approaches to calibration, Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie, Supplementband 132, 1–18, 2003.
Ballantyne, C. K.: Paraglacial geomorphology, Quaternary Sci. Rev.,
21, 1935–2017, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-3791(02)00005-7, 2002.
Ballantyne, C. K.: PERMAFROST AND PERIGLACIAL FEATURES | Paraglacial
Geomorphology, in: Encyclopedia of Quaternary Science, Second Edition,
edited by: Elias, S. A. and Mock, C. J., Elsevier, Amsterdam, 553–565, https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-44-452747-8/00102-2,
2013.
Ballantyne, C. K. and Benn, D. I.: Paraglacial Slope Adjustment and
Resedlmenfation following Recent Glacier Retreat, Fåbergstølsdalen,
Norway, Arct. Alp. Res., 26, 255–269, 1994.
Ballantyne, C. K., Wilson, P., Gheorghiu, D., and Rodés, À.:
Enhanced rock-slope failure following ice-sheet deglaciation: timing and
causes, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 39, 900–913, https://doi.org/10.1002/ESP.3495, 2014.
Bhushan, S., Syed, T. H., Arendt, A. A., Kulkarni, A. V., and Sinha, D.:
Assessing controls on mass budget and surface velocity variations of
glaciers in Western Himalaya, Sci. Rep.-UK, 8, 8885, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-27014-y, 2018.
Boulton, G. S.: Boulder shapes and grain-size distributions of debris as
indicators of transport paths through a glacier and till genesis,
Sedimentology, 25, 773–799, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3091.1978.tb00329.x, 1978.
Brun, F., Berthier, E., Wagnon, P., Kääb, A., and Treichler, D.: A
spatially resolved estimate of High Mountain Asia glacier mass balances from
2000 to 2016, Nat. Geosci., 10, 668–673, https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo2999, 2017.
Cai, J., Jia, H., Liu, G., Zhang, B., Liu, Q., Fu, Y., Wang, X., and Zhang,
R.: An Accurate Geocoding Method for GB-SAR Images Based on Solution Space
Search and Its Application in Landslide Monitoring, Remote Sensing, 13, 832,
https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13050832, 2021.
Cao, B., Pan, B., Guan, W., Wen, Z., and Wang, J.: Changes in glacier volume
on Mt. Gongga, southeastern Tibetan Plateau, based on the analysis of
multi-temporal DEMs from 1966 to 2015, J. Glaciol., 65, 366–375,
2019.
Chen, C., Zhang, L. M., Xiao, T., and He, J.: Barrier lake bursting and
flood routing in the Yarlung Tsangpo Grand Canyon in October 2018, J.
Hydrol., 583, 124603, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JHYDROL.2020.124603, 2020.
Cheng, Z. L., Liu, J. J., and Liu, J. K.: Debris flow induced by glacial
lake break in southeast Tibet, WIT Trans. Eng. Sci., 67,
101–111, https://doi.org/10.2495/DEB100091, 2010.
Church, M. and Ryder, J. M.: Paraglacial Sedimentation: A Consideration of
Fluvial Processes Conditioned by Glaciation, GSA Bulletin, 83, 3059–3072,
https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1972)83[3059:psacof]2.0.co;2, 1972.
Cody, E., Anderson, B. M., McColl, S. T., Fuller, I. C., and Purdie, H. L.:
Paraglacial adjustment of sediment slopes during and immediately after
glacial debuttressing, Geomorphology, 371, 107411, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2020.107411, 2020.
Coe, J. A.: Bellwether sites for evaluating changes in landslide frequency
and magnitude in cryospheric mountainous terrain: a call for systematic,
long-term observations to decipher the impact of climate change, Landslides,
17, 2483–2501, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-020-01462-y, 2020.
Cook, S. J., Porter, P. R., and Bendall, C. A.: Geomorphological
consequences of a glacier advance across a paraglacial rock avalanche
deposit, Geomorphology, 189, 109–120, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.01.022,
2013.
Curry, A. M., Cleasby, V., and Zukowskyj, P.: Paraglacial response of steep,
sediment-mantled slopes to post-“Little Ice Age” glacier recession in the
central Swiss Alps, J. Quaternary Sci., 21, 211–225, https://doi.org/10.1002/jqs.954, 2006.
Deline, P., Gruber, S., Delaloye, R., Fischer, L., Geertsema, M., Giardino,
M., Hasler, A., Kirkbride, M., Krautblatter, M., and Magnin, F.: Ice loss
and slope stability in high-mountain regions, in: Snow and Ice-related
hazards, risks and disasters, Elsevier, edited by: Shroder, J. F., Haeberli, W., and Whiteman, C., 521–561, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-394849-6.00015-9, 2015a.
Deline, P., Hewitt, K., Reznichenko, N., and Shugar, D.: Rock
Avalanches onto Glaciers, chap. 9, in: Landslide Hazards, Risks and Disasters, edited
by: Shroder, J. F. and Davies, T., Academic Press, Boston, 263–319, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-396452-6.00009-4, 2015b.
Draebing, D. and Krautblatter, M.: The Efficacy of Frost Weathering
Processes in Alpine Rockwalls, Geophys. Res. Lett., 46, 6516–6524,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GL081981, 2019.
Dunning, S. A., Rosser, N. J., McColl, S. T., and Reznichenko, N. V.: Rapid
sequestration of rock avalanche deposits within glaciers, Nat. Commun., 6,
7964, https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms8964, 2015.
Dusik, J.-M., Neugirg, F., and Haas, F.: Slope Wash, Gully Erosion and
Debris Flows on Lateral Moraines in the Upper Kaunertal, Austria, in:
Geomorphology of Proglacial Systems: Landform and Sediment Dynamics in
Recently Deglaciated Alpine Landscapes, edited by: Heckmann, T., and Morche,
D., Springer International Publishing, Cham, 177–196, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94184-4_11, 2019.
Eichel, J., Krautblatter, M., Schmidtlein, S., and Dikau, R.: Biogeomorphic
interactions in the Turtmann glacier forefield, Switzerland, Geomorphology,
201, 98–110, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.06.012, 2013.
Eichel, J., Draebing, D., and Meyer, N.: From active to stable: Paraglacial
transition of Alpine lateral moraine slopes, Land Degrad.
Dev., 29, 4158–4172, https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.3140, 2018.
Emmer, A., Klimeš, J., Hölbling, D., Abad, L., Draebing, D.,
Skalák, P., Štěpánek, P., and Zahradníček, P.:
Distinct types of landslides in moraines associated with the post-LIA
glacier thinning: Observations from the Kinzl Glacier, Huascarán, Peru,
Sci. Total Environ., 739, 139997, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139997, 2020.
Fan, J., An, C., Zhang, X., Li, X., and Tan, J.: Hazard assessment of
glacial lake outburst floods in Southeast Tibet based on RS and GIS
technologies, Int. J. Remote Sens., 40, 4955–4979, https://doi.org/10.1080/01431161.2019.1577578, 2019.
Farr, T. G., Rosen, P. A., Caro, E., Crippen, R., Duren, R., Hensley, S.,
Kobrick, M., Paller, M., Rodriguez, E., Roth, L., Seal, D., Shaffer, S.,
Shimada, J., Umland, J., Werner, M., Oskin, M., Burbank, D., and Alsdorf,
D.: The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission, Rev. Geophys., 45, RG2004, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005RG000183, 2007.
Fickert, T. and Grüninger, F.: High-speed colonization of bare
ground – Permanent plot studies on primary succession of plants in recently
deglaciated glacier forelands, Land Degrad. Dev., 29,
2668–2680, https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.3063, 2018.
Fischer, L., Amann, F., Moore, J. R., and Huggel, C.: Assessment of
periglacial slope stability for the 1988 Tschierva rock avalanche (Piz
Morteratsch, Switzerland), Eng. Geol., 116, 32–43, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2010.07.005, 2010.
Fischer, L., Purves, R. S., Huggel, C., Noetzli, J., and Haeberli, W.: On the influence of topographic, geological and cryospheric factors on rock avalanches and rockfalls in high-mountain areas, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 12, 241–254, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-12-241-2012, 2012.
Fountain, A. G. and Walder, J. S.: Water flow through temperate glaciers,
Rev. Geophys., 36, 299–328, 1998.
Fyffe, C. L., Woodget, A. S., Kirkbride, M. P., Deline, P., Westoby, M. J.,
and Brock, B. W.: Processes at the margins of supraglacial debris cover:
Quantifying dirty ice ablation and debris redistribution, Earth Surf.
Proc. Land., 45, 2272–2290, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.4879, 2020.
Glueer, F., Loew, S., and Manconi, A.: Paraglacial history and structure of
the Moosfluh Landslide (1850–2016), Switzerland, Geomorphology, 355,
106677, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2019.02.021, 2020.
Grämiger, L. M., Moore, J. R., Gischig, V. S., Ivy-Ochs, S., and Loew,
S.: Beyond debuttressing: Mechanics of paraglacial rock slope damage during
repeat glacial cycles, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 122,
1004–1036, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JF003967, 2017.
Gruber, S., Fleiner, R., Guegan, E., Panday, P., Schmid, M.-O., Stumm, D., Wester, P., Zhang, Y., and Zhao, L.: Review article: Inferring permafrost and permafrost thaw in the mountains of the Hindu Kush Himalaya region, The Cryosphere, 11, 81–99, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-81-2017, 2017.
Haiguanju: Hailuogou Scenic Area achieved another record in tourist
reception in 2019, available at: http://www.gzz.gov.cn/gzzrmzf/c100044/202001/38048f67a8d3431fa8fe98d250b42281.shtml (last access: 10 July 2020),
2020.
Haritashya, U. K., Kargel, J. S., Shugar, D. H., Leonard, G. J., Strattman,
K., Watson, C. S., Shean, D., Harrison, S., Mandli, K. T., and Regmi, D.:
Evolution and Controls of Large Glacial Lakes in the Nepal Himalaya, Remote
Sensing, 10, 798, https://doi.org/10.3390/RS10050798, 2018.
Hartmeyer, I., Delleske, R., Keuschnig, M., Krautblatter, M., Lang, A., Schrott, L., and Otto, J.-C.: Current glacier recession causes significant rockfall increase: the immediate paraglacial response of deglaciating cirque walls, Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 729–751, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-729-2020, 2020.
He, Y., Zhang, Z., Theakstone, W., Chen, T., Yao, T., and Pang, H.: Changing features of the climate and glaciers in China's monsoonal temperate glacier region, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4530–4536, 2003.
He, Y., Li, Z., Yang, X., Jia, W., He, X., Song, B., Zhang, N., and Liu, Q.:
Changes of the Hailuogou Glacier, Mt. Gongga, China, against the background
of global warming in the last several decades, J. China Univ.
Geosci., 19, 271–281, 2008.
Hedding, D. W., Erofeev, A. A., Hansen, C. D., Khon, A. V., and Abbasov, Z.
R.: Geomorphological processes and landforms of glacier forelands in the
upper Aktru River basin (Gornyi Altai), Russia: evidence for rapid recent
retreat and paraglacial adjustment, J. Mt. Sci., 17,
824–837, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-019-5845-5, 2020.
Hemond, H. F. and Fechner, E. J.: The Atmosphere, in: Chemical
Fate and Transport in the Environment, chap. 4, Third Edition, edited by: Hemond, H.
F., and Fechner, E. J., Academic Press, Boston, 311–454, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-340270-7.50008-4, 2015.
Herman, F., De Doncker, F., Delaney, I., Prasicek, G., and Koppes, M.: The impact of glaciers on mountain erosion, Nat. Rev. Earth Environ., 2, 422–435, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-021-00165-9, 2021.
Hewitt, K., Clague, J., and Deline, P.: Catastrophic Rock Slope Failures and
Mountain Glaciers, in: Encyclopedia of Snow, Ice and Glaciers, edited by:
Singh, V. P., Singh, P., and Haritashya, Springer, 113–126, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2642-2_615, 2011.
Hu, G., Chen, N., Deng, M., and Wang, Y.: Classification and Initiation
Conditions of Debris Flows in Linzhi Area, Tibet, Bulletin of Soil and Water
Conservation, 31, 193–197 + 221, 2011.
Huggel, C., Caplan-Auerbach, J., Waythomas, C. F., and Wessels, R. L.:
Monitoring and modeling ice-rock avalanches from ice-capped volcanoes: A
case study of frequent large avalanches on Iliamna Volcano, Alaska, J.
Volcanol. Geoth. Res., 168, 114–136, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2007.08.009, 2007.
Hungr, O., Leroueil, S., and Picarelli, L.: The Varnes classification of
landslide types, an update, Landslides, 11, 167–194, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-013-0436-y, 2014.
Jarman, D.: Large rock slope failures in the Highlands of Scotland:
Characterisation, causes and spatial distribution, Eng. Geol., 83,
161–182, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENGGEO.2005.06.030, 2006.
Kääb, A., Jacquemart, M., Gilbert, A., Leinss, S., Girod, L., Huggel, C., Falaschi, D., Ugalde, F., Petrakov, D., Chernomorets, S., Dokukin, M., Paul, F., Gascoin, S., Berthier, E., and Kargel, J. S.: Sudden large-volume detachments of low-angle mountain glaciers – more frequent than thought?, The Cryosphere, 15, 1751–1785, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-1751-2021, 2021.
Ke, C.-Q., Kou, C., Ludwig, R., and Qin, X.: Glacier velocity measurements
in the eastern Yigong Zangbo basin, Tibet, China, J. Glaciol., 59,
1060–1068, https://doi.org/10.3189/2013JOG12J234, 2013.
Kirkbride, M. P. and Deline, P.: Spatial heterogeneity in the paraglacial
response to post-Little Ice Age deglaciation of four headwater cirques in
the Western Alps, Land Degrad. Dev., 29, 3127–3140, https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.2975, 2018.
Krautblatter, M., and Leith, K.: Glacier- and permafrost-related slope
instabilities, in: The High-Mountain Cryosphere: Environmental Changes and
Human Risks, edited by: Kääb, A., Huggel, C., Clague, J. J., and
Carey, M., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 147–165, https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107588653, 2015.
Li, X., Ding, Y., Liu, Q., Zhang, Y., Han, T., Jing, Z., Yu, Z., Li, Q., and
Liu, S.: Intense Chemical Weathering at Glacial Meltwater-Dominated
Hailuogou Basin in the Southeastern Tibetan Plateau, Water, 11, 1209, https://doi.org/10.3390/w11061209, 2019.
Li, Z., He, Y., Yang, X., Theakstone, W. H., Jia, W., Pu, T., Liu, Q., He,
X., Song, B., Zhang, N., Wang, S., and Du, J.: Changes of the Hailuogou
glacier, Mt. Gongga, China, against the background of climate change during
the Holocene, Quatern. Int., 218, 166–175, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2008.09.005, 2010.
Liao, H., Liu, Q., Zhong, Y., and Lu, X.: Landsat-Based Estimation of the
Glacier Surface Temperature of Hailuogou Glacier, Southeastern Tibetan
Plateau, Between 1990 and 2018, Remote Sensing, 12, 2105, https://doi.org/10.3390/RS12132105,
2020.
Liu, G., Chen, Y., Zhang, Y., and Fu, H.: Mineral deformation and subglacial
processes on ice-bedrock interface of Hailuogou Glacier, Chinese Sci.
Bull., 54, 3318–3325, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11434-009-0289-x, 2009.
Liu, G., Zhang, B., Liu, Q., Zhang, R., Cai, J., Fu, Y., Yu, B., and Li, Z.:
Monitoring Dynamics of Hailuogou Glacier and the Secondary Landslide
Disasters Based on Combination of Satellite SAR and Ground-Based SAR,
Geomatics and Information Science of Wuhan University, 44, 980–995, 2019.
Liu, J., Zhang, J., Gao, B., Li, Y., Mengyu, L., Wujin, D., and Zhou, L.: An
overview of glacial lake outburst flood in Tibet, China, Journal of
Glaciology and Geocryology, 41, 1335–1347, 2019.
Liu, Q. and Liu, S.: Seasonal evolution of the englacial and subglacial
drainage systems of a temperate glacier revealed by hydrological analysis,
Sci. Cold Arid. Reg., 2, 51–58, 2010.
Liu, Q. and Zhang, Y.: Studies on the dynamics of monsoonal temperate
glaciers in Mt.Gongga: a review, Mt. Res., 35, 717–726, 2017.
Liu, Q., Liu, S., Zhang, Y., Wang, X., Zhang, Y., Guo, W., and Xu, J.:
Recent shrinkage and hydrological response of Hailuogou glacier, a monsoon
temperate glacier on the east slope of Mount Gongga, China, J.
Glaciol., 56, 215–224, 2010.
Liu, Q., Liu, S., and Cao, W.: Seasonal Variation of Drainage System in the
Lower Ablation Area of a Monsoonal Temperate Debris-Covered Glacier in Mt.
Gongga, South-Eastern Tibet, Water, 10, 1050, https://doi.org/10.3390/w10081050, 2018.
Liu, W., Carling, P. A., Hu, K., Wang, H., Zhou, Z., Zhou, L., Liu, D., Lai,
Z., and Zhang, X.: Outburst floods in China: A review, Earth-Sci.
Rev., 197, 102895, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EARSCIREV.2019.102895, 2019.
Matsuoka, N.: Frost weathering and rockwall erosion in the southeastern
Swiss Alps: Long-term (1994–2006) observations, Geomorphology, 99, 353–368,
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.GEOMORPH.2007.11.013, 2008.
McColl, S. T.: Paraglacial rock-slope stability, Geomorphology, 153–154,
1–16, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2012.02.015, 2012.
McColl, S. T.: Landslide Causes and Triggers, in: Landslide
Hazards, Risks and Disasters, edited by: Shroder, J. F., and Davies, T., Chap. 2,
Academic Press, Boston, 17–42, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818464-6.00011-1, 2015.
McColl, S. T. and Davies, T. R.: Large ice-contact slope movements: glacial
buttressing, deformation and erosion, Earth Surf. Proc. Land.,
38, 1102–1115, 2013.
Miles, K. E., Hubbard, B., Miles, E. S., Quincey, D. J., Rowan, A. V.,
Kirkbride, M., and Hornsey, J.: Continuous borehole optical televiewing
reveals variable englacial debris concentrations at Khumbu Glacier, Nepal,
Communications Earth & Environment, 2, 12, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-020-00070-x, 2021.
Neckel, N., Loibl, D., and Rankl, M.: Recent slowdown and thinning of
debris-covered glaciers in south-eastern Tibet, Earth Planet. Sc.
Lett., 464, 95–102, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2017.02.008, 2017.
Oerlemans, J.: Climate sensitivity of Franz Josef Glacier, New Zealand, as
revealed by numerical modeling, Arct. Alp. Res., 29, 233–239,
1997.
Pan, B. T., Zhang, G. L., Wang, J., Cao, B., Geng, H. P., Wang, J., Zhang, C., and Ji, Y. P.: Glacier changes from 1966–2009 in the Gongga Mountains, on the south-eastern margin of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and their climatic forcing, The Cryosphere, 6, 1087–1101, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-6-1087-2012, 2012.
Reheis, M. J.: Source, transportation and deposition of debris on Arapaho
Glacier, Front Range, Colorado, U.S.A, J. Glaciol., 14, 407–420,
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022143000021936, 1975.
Reznichenko, N. V., Davies, T. R. H., Shulmeister, J., and Larsen, S. H.: A
new technique for identifying rock avalanche–sourced sediment in moraines
and some paleoclimatic implications, Geology, 40, 319–322, https://doi.org/10.1130/g32684.1, 2012.
Rodríguez-Rodríguez, L., González-Lemos, S., Ballesteros, D.,
Valenzuela, P., Domínguez-Cuesta, M. J., Llana-Fúnez, S., and
Jiménez-Sánchez, M.: Timing of paraglacial rock-slope failures and
denudation signatures in the Cantabrian Mountains (North Iberian Peninsula),
Land Degrad. Dev., 29, 3159–3173, https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.3012,
2018.
Rowan, A. V., Quincey, D. J., Gibson, M. J., Glasser, N. F., Westoby, M. J.,
Irvine-Fynn, T. D. L., Porter, P. R., and Hambrey, M. J.: The sustainability
of water resources in High Mountain Asia in the context of recent and future
glacier change, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 462, 189,
https://doi.org/10.1144/SP462.12, 2018.
Salerno, F., Thakuri, S., D'Agata, C., Smiraglia, C., Manfredi, E. C.,
Viviano, G., and Tartari, G.: Glacial lake distribution in the Mount Everest
region: Uncertainty of measurement and conditions of formation, Global
Planet. Change, 92, 30-39, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.GLOPLACHA.2012.04.001, 2012.
Scherler, D., Wulf, H., and Gorelick, N.: Global Assessment of Supraglacial
Debris-Cover Extents, Geophys. Res. Lett., 45, 11798–711805, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018GL080158, 2018.
Schiefer, E. and Gilbert, R.: Reconstructing morphometric change in a
proglacial landscape using historical aerial photography and automated DEM
generation, Geomorphology, 88, 167–178, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2006.11.003,
2007.
Shugar, D. H., Jacquemart, M., Shean, D., Bhushan, S., Upadhyay, K., Sattar,
A., Schwanghart, W., McBride, S., Vries, M. V. W. d., Mergili, M., Emmer,
A., Deschamps-Berger, C., McDonnell, M., Bhambri, R., Allen, S., Berthier,
E., Carrivick, J. L., Clague, J. J., Dokukin, M., Dunning, S. A., Frey, H.,
Gascoin, S., Haritashya, U. K., Huggel, C., Kääb, A., Kargel, J. S.,
Kavanaugh, J. L., Lacroix, P., Petley, D., Rupper, S., Azam, M. F., Cook, S.
J., Dimri, A. P., Eriksson, M., Farinotti, D., Fiddes, J., Gnyawali, K. R.,
Harrison, S., Jha, M., Koppes, M., Kumar, A., Leinss, S., Majeed, U., Mal,
S., Muhuri, A., Noetzli, J., Paul, F., Rashid, I., Sain, K., Steiner, J.,
Ugalde, F., Watson, C. S., and Westoby, M.: A massive rock and ice avalanche
caused the 2021 disaster at Chamoli, Indian Himalaya, Science, 373, 300–306,
https://doi.org/10.1126/SCIENCE.ABH4455, 2021.
Smith, W. D., Dunning, S. A., Brough, S., Ross, N., and Telling, J.: GERALDINE (Google Earth Engine supRaglAciaL Debris INput dEtector): a new tool for identifying and monitoring supraglacial landslide inputs, Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 1053–1065, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-1053-2020, 2020.
Su, Z. and Shi, Y.: Response of monsoonal temperate glaciers to global
warming since the Little Ice Age, Quatern. Int., 97–98, 123-131,
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1040-6182(02)00057-5, 2002.
van Woerkom, T., Steiner, J. F., Kraaijenbrink, P. D. A., Miles, E. S., and Immerzeel, W. W.: Sediment supply from lateral moraines to a debris-covered glacier in the Himalaya, Earth Surf. Dynam., 7, 411–427, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-411-2019, 2019.
Wang, P., Li, Z., Li, H., Wang, W., Wu, L., Zhang, H., Huai, B., and Wang,
L.: Recent Evolution in Extent, Thickness, and Velocity of Haxilegen Glacier
No. 51, Kuytun River Basin, Eastern Tianshan Mountains, Arct. Antarct.
Alp. Res., 48, 241–252, https://doi.org/10.1657/AAAR0014-079, 2016.
Williams, H. B. and Koppes, M. N.: A comparison of glacial and paraglacial
denudation responses to rapid glacial retreat, Ann. Glaciol., 60,
151–164, https://doi.org/10.1017/aog.2020.1, 2020.
Xu, Q., Shang, Y., AschTheo, v., Wang, S., Zhang, Z., and Dong, X.:
Observations from the large, rapid Yigong rock slide – debris avalanche,
southeast Tibet, Can. Geotech. J., 49, 589–606, https://doi.org/10.1139/T2012-021, 2012.
Xu, X., Ma, D., He, D., and Huang, H.: Analysis on hydro-thermal combination
of debris flow occurrence in Mt. Gongga region, Mt. Res., 4, 431–437,
2007.
Yao, T., Xue, Y., Chen, D., Chen, F., Thompson, L., Cui, P., Koike, T., Lau,
W. K. M., Lettenmaier, D., Mosbrugger, V., Zhang, R., Xu, B., Dozier, J.,
Gillespie, T., Gu, Y., Kang, S., Piao, S., Sugimoto, S., Ueno, K., Wang, L.,
Wang, W., Zhang, F., Sheng, Y., Guo, W., Ailikun, Yang, X., Ma, Y., Shen, S.
S. P., Su, Z., Chen, F., Liang, S., Liu, Y., Singh, V. P., Yang, K., Yang,
D., Zhao, X., Qian, Y., Zhang, Y., and Li, Q.: Recent Third Pole's Rapid
Warming Accompanies Cryospheric Melt and Water Cycle Intensification and
Interactions between Monsoon and Environment: Multidisciplinary Approach
with Observations, Modeling, and Analysis, B. Am.
Meteorol. Soc., 100, 423–444, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-17-0057.1, 2019a.
Yao, T., Yu, W., Wu, G., Xu, B., Yang, W., Zhao, H., Wang, W., Li, S., Wang,
N., Li, Z., Liu, S., and You, C.: Glacier anomalies and relevant disaster
risks on the Tibetan Plateau and surroundings, Chinese Sci. Bull., 64,
2770–2782, 2019b.
Yao, X., Liu, S., Sun, M., and Zhang, X.: Study on the glacial lake outburst
flood events in Tibet since the 20th Century, Journal of Natural Resources,
29, 1377–1390, 2014.
Zhang, W.: Some features of the surge glacier in the Mt. Namjagbarwa,
Mt. Res., 3, 234–238, 1985.
Zhang, Y., Fujita, K., Liu, S., Liu, Q., and Wang, X.: Multi-decadal
ice-velocity and elevation changes of a monsoonal maritime glacier:
Hailuogou glacier, China, J. Glaciol., 56, 65–74, https://doi.org/10.3189/002214310791190884, 2010.
Zhu, Z.: On Characteristics of Visitor Flow to Hailuogou Glacier Forest Park
in Sichuan, Journal of Huizhou University, 35, 66–69 + 80, 2015.
Short summary
Slope failures exist in many paraglacial regions and are the main manifestation of the interaction between debris-covered glaciers and slopes. We mapped paraglacial slope failures (PSFs) along the Hailuogou Glacier (HLG), Mt. Gongga, southeastern Tibetan Plateau. We argue that the formation, evolution, and current status of these typical PSFs are generally related to glacier history and paraglacial geomorphological adjustments, and influenced by the fluctuation of climate conditions.
Slope failures exist in many paraglacial regions and are the main manifestation of the...
